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http://www.archive.org/details/prizeessaysoncooOOprin 



PEIZE ESSAYS 



OX 



COOKED ! COOKING FOOD 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE FARM, 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



FOR THE 



STOCK FEEDER, FARMERS AID OTHERS. 



.REVISED EDITION. 



PUBLISHED BY 

)>. B. PR1NDLE, East Bethany, N. Y. ; and 
BARROWS, SAVERY & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



ROCHESTER, N. Y. : 

DEMOCRAT BOOK AND JOB PRINTING HOUSE, 3 BUFFALO STREET. 

1870. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by Daniel R. Pkindle, in the Office of rh,> 
Librarian of Congress at Washington". 



OO^TTEISTTS. 



PAGE. 

Introduction, 2 

Prize Essays : 

The Advantages of Cooking Food for Domestic Animals, by E. W. Stewart, of New- 
York, 4 

Woody Fiber, does heat affect it? 5 

Heat the Great Solvent, 7 

Practical Results of Cooking, 7 

Cooking for Hogs, 12 

Fattening Cattle, 13 

Fermenting Food, 13 

Cooking and Feeding Cooked Food to Stock, by W. H. White, of Connecticut, 18 

Tables, &c, 19-20 

Cooked Food for Hogs, 23 

The Advantages of Cooked Food for Domestic Animals, by Prof. J. Wilkinson, of 

Baltimore. Md., 25 

Extracts from a paper prepared by H. S. Collins, of Collinsville, Connecticut 30 

Table— Comparative Value of different kinds of lood, 34 

Cooked Food for Farm Stock, . 35 

The Advantages of Cooking Food for Domestic Animals, from U. S. Agricultural Report, . . 41 

$50,000,000 Annually Wasted, 43 

Whey 43 

How to Prevent Cooked Food Fermenting, 44 

Cooking Corn or Whole Grain, 45 

Cooked against Fermented Food, 45 

Testimonials in favor of Cooked Food, 46 

Cooked Food for Stock 47 

Essentials to Dairying, by L. F. Allen, 48 

A Table to Calculate Periods of Gestation of Farm Animals, &c, 49 

A Hungarian Dairy ' 49 

Arrangement for Dumping Steam Vessels, &c.,. .... , 50 

Laying Steam Pipes, ./s. 50 

Frequent Causes of Failure in the Use of Steam 51 

How to prevent Condensed Steam Clogging or Freezing in Pipes, 51 

The Road to Success in the Use of Steam, 51 

Protection of Pipes the only road to success, 51 

Wood Steam Vessels better than Iron, — Norwegian Dinner Pot, &c, 52 

Engines, Wrought-Iron Boilers, &c, 53 

Hints to those wno intend to purchase boilers, or other cooking apparatus, 53 

Advantages of Steam in Farm Economy, 54 

Illustrations : 

Apparatus for Cooking Fodder, 55 

Horizontal Cylinder Boiler, with water tank, 56 

Sorghum and other Pans 4 as Fodder Cookers, 57 

Upright Cylinder Boiler, 57 

The Anderson Steamer, 58 

A Combined Caldron and Steamer, 59 

Safety Valve and Appendage^ 59 

Prindle's Non-Explosive Steamer and Caldron, 60 

Prindle's Steamer as adapted to farmers 1 wants, HI 

Prindle's Patent Pressure and Vacuum Valve, 61 

Prindle's Farmers 1 Boiler and Furnace, 62 

Making Steam Boxes, 62 

Spark Catcher, 63 

Low Pressure Boiler Feeders, 63 

Advertisements 64 



PEIZE ESSAYS 



ON 



COOKED FOOD FOR ANIMALS 



BY 



E. W. STEWART, op New York; 
W. H. WHITE, of Connecticut; and 
JOHN WILKINSON, of Baltimore, 



WITH 



IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON THE SUBJECT 
BY OTHEB WRITERS.: 



F-R.ICE, SO CENTS. 



/ 



PUBLISHED BY 

D. R. PRINDLE, East Bethany, N. Y.; and 
BARROWS, SAVERY & Co., Philadelphia. 



ROCHESTER, N. Y. : 
DEMOCRAT BOOK AND JOB PRINTING HOUSE, 3 BUFFALO STREET 

1870. 



The Advantages of Cooking Food 

FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



COOKED FOOD FOR STOCK. 



The increase of population is found to be in proportion to the 
abundant supply of food, and as nations advance in intelligence 
and civilization, they rely more upon animal products to support 
the higher brain power. The Japanese, Chinese and East Indians, 
subsisting mostly upon vegetables, owe much of their physical and 
mental inferiority to the want of animal food. 

Those nations possessing a restless energy, who seek the ends 
of the earth for enterprise, excel in art, science, philosophy and 
mental vigor, have been associated from the earliest times, as sung 
by their sweetest pastoral poets, with flocks and herds. The great 
Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans were often typified by a magni- 
ficent white bull. 

And when we come down to our own day, uhder the broad 
banner of universal liberty and free enterprise, running its iron track 
across a continent in a few months — even now, nothing excites 
greater admiration than the splendid proportions of the Short Horn, 
or the rotund, juicy fulness of the Bakewell and Cotswold. The 
rearing and feeding of domestic animals has been the leading fea- 
ture of Agriculture with the foremost nations of the earth. The 
expenditure of labor and material is greater in this than in any 
other department, or perhaps, than in all other departments of farm 
industry. 

The number of neat cattle of all descriptions in the United 
States, is, probably, not less than 22,000,000, of horses 5,800,000, of 
mules 860,000, of sheep 40,000,000, of hogs 25,000,000; and all 
these mouths are to be fed. What a field for economy is presented 
here ! If science can aid agriculture in any department, surely this 
is the field to try its powers. True science is knowledge founded 
upon experiments ; and in our discussion of the topic at the head of 
this essay, we shall deal more with facts than theory. 



PHILOSOPHY OF COOKING FOOD. 

Perhaps the first inquiry of the farmer will be, why should food 
be cooked ? Nature does not cook food for animals. This is a 
pertinent question, and we will do our best to solve it. Nature fur- 
nishes the food for herbiverous animals in a green, succulent and 
soluble state, easily masticated and digested. Prof. Wolff found by 
analysis, that green clover, calculated dry, has but 25 per cent, of 
crude fiber, while the same dried into hay has 43 per cent. This 
shows why hay requires different treatment from grass. But the 
question returns, What effect does heat have upon food ? 

To illustrate first, with human food : every housewife knows that 
starch will not dissolve in cold water. Payen mixed starch with 
water, heating it to 140 Q F., on a microscopic examination found 
that some of the smaller grains had absorbed water and burst, but 
many still remained unaffected and only burst between 162° and ■ 
212° F. 

Pereira says : " to render starchy substances digestible they 
require to be cooked in order to break or crack the grains." 
" Starch," says Raspail, " is not actually nutritive to man until it 
has been boiled or cooked. The heat of the stomach is not sufficient 
to burst all the grains of the feculent mass." 

Brocconot observes, " that the potatoes employed for feeding- 
cattle should be boiled, as a considerable quantity of alimentary 
matter is lost by the use of these tubers in a raw state." 

Johnston, in his Ag. Chem., says : " when wheat Hour is heated 
to a temperature not exceeding 300° F., it slowly changes, acquires 
a yellow or brownish tint, according to the temperature employed, 
and becomes entirely soluble in cold water. Thus one result of 
baking bread is to render flour-starch more soluble and therefore 
more easily digested." 

These statements of scientific men show clearly the effect of 
heat upon all our cereal grains and upon root tubers ; and the 
result of practical experiments in cooking these kinds of food for 
animals fully demonstrate their correctness. Feeding experiments 
with grain show from 50 to 125 per cent, gain in cooking. 

WOODY-FIBER— DOES HEAT AFFECT IT? 

It was formerly supposed that the woody-fiber (cellulose) of 
hay, straw and coarse fodder, was indigestible, and, of course, not 
nutritious. But this opinion is fast giving way to well ascertained 
facts, proving the contrary. All settlers in a new wooded country 
know that animals, when driven to the necessity, can live on the 
twigs of fallen trees. These twigs are tender, and can be partially 
reduced by mastication, and thus furnish food to that extent for the 
animal. We are also familiar with the fact that worms live and 
grow fat in the bodies of trees, consuming the woody fiber. This is 
conclusive in establishing the nutritious quality of the hardest wood 
fiber. And if woody-fiber be nutritious, how can we avail ourselves 
of i$s nutrition ? Let us see what experiments have been made 
upon the most unyielding woody substances. 



6 

Pereira says : " when woody fiber is comminuted and reduced 
by artificial processes, it is said to form a substance analogous to 
the amylaceous (starchy) principle and to be highly nutritious." 

Schubler experimented upon sawdust from solid wood, and says : 
" when wood is deprived of everything soluble, subjected to the 
heat of an oven, then ground in the manner of corn, it yields a flour, 
which when boiled with water forms a jelly like wheat starch, and 
when fermented with leaven, makes a perfectly uniform and spongy 
bread." Prof. Johnston, speaking of these experiments, says; 
" woody fiber may be changed into starch thus by the unaided 
action of heat, and the starch thus produced changed first into gum, 
then into grape sugar, by the action of dilute sulphuric acid, 
assisted by a moderate heat." 

Tomlinson, in his Cyclopedia, asserts that, " in Sweden and Nor- 
way, sawdust is sometimes converted into bread ; for which pur- 
pose beech, or some wood that does not contain turpentine, is re- 
peatedly macerated or boiled in water to remove soluble matter, 
and is then heated several times in an oven and ground ; in this 
state it is said to have the smell and taste of corn flour. It has a 
yellowish color, and ferments on the addition of leaven. When 
well baked it makes a uniform and spongy bread. By boiling wood 
wdour in water a thick nutritious jelly is formed, like that made from 
wheat starch." 

These facts are quite consistent with chemistry : for cellulose 
(woody fiber) is chemically identical with starch, and nearly 60 per 
cent, of our cereal grains is composed of starch, while nearly an 
equal per centage of hay, straw and coarse fodder is composed of 
cellulose ; and these experiments show that heat is the agent to con- 
vert woody fiber into starch, and thus make it digestible. 

Some interesting experiments were made by two German chem- 
ists (Stockhardt and Susdorf ) in 1859, in feeding sheep, to deter- 
mine whether cellulose (woody fiber) could be digested by that 
animal. They fed two wethers five and six years old, first upon 
hay alone ; second, upon hay and rye straw ; third upon hay, and 
sawdust of poplar wood (and to induce the sheep to eat it, mixed a 
little bran and salt) ; fourth, hay and pine sawdust with a little 
bran and salt • fifth, hay, pulp of linen rags (from the paper maker, 
this had been steamed) and bran. The animals with their food, 
drink and egesta were weighed each day. The amount of woody 
fiber in the wood was accurately determined, and also the amount 
in the egesta, and the difference between the two amounts of woody 
fiber represented the amount of woody fiber digested and assimilat- 
ed by the animals. They found 60 to 70 per cent, of the cellulose 
of hay, 40 to 60 of straw, 40 to 50 of sawdust of poplar wood, 30 
to 40 of pine saw dust, and 80 per cent, of the cellulose of paper 
pulp was digested. It will be seen that a larger per cent, of the 
pulp of linen rags was digested than of hay. This was, no doubt, 
owing to the heat applied; for the fiber of linen is, certainly, 
tougher than that of hay. The heat of the animal stomach, together 
with the aid of the gastric juice, is sufficient to appropriate a portion 
of the dry grains and woody fiber used as food, but there can be, no 
doubt a large per centage is wasted for want of a higher degree of heat. 



HEAT IS THE GREAT SOLVENT. 

And as the composition of cellulose is identical with that of 
starch, it must have an equal nutritive power to starch, when in a 
digestible condition ; and thus science shows how this dry and 
woody fiber may be reconverted into grass or soluble food by the 
application of heat. And we trust the day is not far distant when 
millions of dollars will be realized annually by our farmers in meat, 
milk and wool, from what is now wasted as refuse. 

PRACTICAL RESULTS OF COOKING FOOD FOR STOCK. 

Having given some of the principal reasons for cooking food, 
we will now proceed to give various experiments showing its appli- 
cation in practice. We began cooking some thirteen years ago, 
cautiously at first, with a poor apparatus, but soon discovered that 
it was a real improvement, and necessary to thrift in feeding stock. 

One of the first discoveries made was its remarkable effect upon 
musty hay, straw and corn stalks, rendering them sweet and pala- 
table. The transformation was so great that hay which animals 
would not touch, unless starved, was greedily eaten after being 
cooked. 

Peas and beans are readily eaten by horses and other stock 
when steamed, as also pea and bean straw, which are usually wasted. 

MIXING FOODS. 

This effect of steam in renewing the flavor of damaged food, 
suggested the propriety of mixing foods of different qualities and 
thus produce a proper balance in their constituents : good hay with 
straw, good hay and poor hay, sweet corn fodder with straw, car- 
rots, turnips, beets, sliced with straw, oil and pea meal with straw, 
poor hay or corn stalks, blending their qualities altogether by the 
diffusive power of steam. Thus food, poor in muscle-forming mat- 
ter, would be supplied with that element and the proper food con- 
stituents equalized. This will also effect another important object 
in feeding, a variety and change of food. Animals thrive much 
better with a frequent change of food or a mixing of different kinds, 
as a common diet. 

It will readily be seen how, on this plan, all the straw and 
coarse fodder raised on the farm may be economically and profit- 
ably used ; and in no other way can different foods be thoroughly 
incorporated and blended with each other. What a grand step in 
advance will it be when the millions of tons of straw raised in the 
grain-growing regions of the United States, shall all be converted 
into milk, meat and wool to feed and clothe mankind. 

QUANTITY OF FOOD FOR A COW. 

When experimenting to determine whether there is any saving, 
and how much, in cooking food, I took the cow as the best animal 
on which to test it. Having two cows, six and seven years old, 



hearty and vigorous, calving in January, I commenced by feeding 
each ten pounds of hay, one and a half pounds of oil meal, same of 
pea meal, and three pounds of bran, all steamed together, per day. 
Upon this sixteen pounds of food each cow gave four gallons of milk 
per day, and made eight pounds of butter per week. This result 
was surprising to me ; but in order to test the effect of cooking, 
they were fed two weeks upon the same quantity and quality of 
uncooked food, and on the second week tested for butter, and it 
had fallen unaer five pounds. The uncooked food was then increas- 
ed in the same proportions to twenty-four pounds, and the product 
of the butter was eight pounds per week. 

They were then put upon cooked food again, and the oil, pea 
meal and bran increased to eight, making eighteen pounds of cooked 
food per day ; and on the second week twenty pounds of butter 
Were made, showing that the two pounds of additional food per day 
had increased the yield of butter two pounds per week. Afterwards, 
on still further increasing the food, the product was not materially 
increased, showing that in this case the profitable limit had been 
reached. Every feeder should make it a point to study the appetite 
and capacity of his cows or growing animals, and feed all that they 
will eat with a good appetite. The profit always comes from the 
extra food. A moment's reflection will convince one of the folly 
of expecting a profit from scanty feeding. Take a steer that weighs 
800 pounds in the fall, and is kept so short that he comes out in the 
spring weighing the same, can any one figure a profit on such feed- 
ing ? Is not all this food a total loss, except the manure thus made ? 
And yet thousands thus winter their animals 1 All the food given 
beyond this would have been profit. 

The above experiments, and others similar, were the founda- 
tions of my oft repeated statements, that cooking saves one-third of 
the food. 

Perhaps a few words are necessary in explanation of the par- 
ticular combination of food given to these cows in milk. The pro- 
duction of milk requires a food rich in casein or vegetable albumen, 
oil and phosphate of lime. The pea, oil meal and bran are each 
rich in one or all of these ingredients. The cow, when in a flow of 
milk, requires a large supply of muscle-forming and bone-building 
elements, in order to keep up her own system and furnish these 
elements to the milk. 

EXPERIMENTS OF OTHERS IN COOKING FOR COWS. 

Having advised in the setting up of much new apparatus for 
cooking food for all kinds of stock, and observed the results of 
many experiments by others, we shall give some of the most impor- 
tant of these under each appropriate head of this essay in confirma- 
tion of our experiments and conclusions. 

Mr. Geo. A. Moore, of New York, says : — " I experimented 
with sixty-four cows. Used one of Prindle's Steamers. Steamed 
a quantity of musty hay. They would eat it entirely up, and seemed 
better satisfied with it than the sweetest unsteamed hay. Steamed 
food does not constipate the animal — the hair looks better. Steamed 



9 

food increased the milk one-third, and the cows do better when put 
out to grass. I think cutting and steaming insure a gain to the 
feeder of at least 33 per cent." Discussion A 7 ". Y. State Fair, 186 '4. 

Mr. B. A. Avery, New York, writes me of his experiment of 
1867-8 : — " Have a steam box in the basement of the barn, holding 
400 bushels. I put two pounds of pea meal on a bushel of hay, and 
have fed from sixty to eighty cows. Milked daily fifty of them, 
and out of the lot have sold twelve of the oldest (after milking 
them every day) to the butchers. I think I have saved $10 per 
head on keeping, say $600 on the stock fed, besides having the milk 
cows in much better condition than ever before in April. 

He writes me again in April, 1869, and after making a state- 
ment of his second year's experience, in which he says he fed with 
cut hay and straw 2-J- pounds of pea meal, one pound of bran and 
6|- quarts of brewer's grains to each cow per day, all steamed to- 
gether, he sums up as follows : — " This, you see, gives me a clear 
profit of $537.26 on four and a half months feed; besides, all the 
waste of this lot of cows is greedily pieked up from among the 
manure by a lot of colts that are as fat now as when they left the 
pasture last fall — a thing I have not had happen before — horses 
cleaning up after cows. In fact, I should as soon think of giving 
up the mowing machine and horse rake, and cutting the hay for 
this lot of stock by hand, as of wintering them on uncooked food." 

Dewey and Stewart, of Michigan, after one winter's trial 
in cooking, write me : — " We have fed sixty-four head of cattle, 
seven horses and 340 sheep — fattening twenty-two head of the cattle 
and seventy sheep. We used two pounds of bran to the bushel of 
straw, which made it better than hay. A small quantity of meal 
was fed to the fattening stock. We think we have saved one-third 
of the expense in wintering this stock." 

Mr, T. C. Eastman, a cattle broker of New York, who has a 
farm in Dutchess County, N". Y., and frequently feeds a large num- 
ber of cows and other cattle, writes me : — " There is no doubt of 
the advantage of steaming food for cows in milk, and for fattening 
any kind of stock." 

Mr. A. W. Knapp, of Dutchess County, K. Y., has cooked for 
twenty-five cows, and says :- — " The results are that my stock im- 
proved, my quantity of milk increased about one quarter as near as 
I can estimate it, and I did not use more than three-quarters of 
the amount of hay when cooked that I did when dry. I cooked 
my meal with the hay. I am thoroughly convinced of the great 
advantages of cooking, and I propose next season to cook for fifty 
bead." 

Prof. Horsfall, of England, has practiced mixing a special food, 
for milch cows, to produce a large yield of milk of good quality, 
and to keep up the flesh of the cow in a full flow ; of milk. He says : 
" My food for milch cows, after having undergone various modi- 
fications, has, for two seasons, consisted of rape cake, five pounds, 
and bran two pounds for each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity 
of bean straw, oat straw and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to 
supply them three times a day as much as they will eat, the whole 
qf the materials moistened and blended together, and after being 



10 

steamed are given to the animals in a warm state. The cows also 
get from one to two pounds of bean meal in proportion to the yield 
of milk. 

Bean straw uncooked is dry and unpalatable; by the process 
of steaming it becomes soft, pulpy, and emits an agreeable odor. 
It is rich in albuminous matter, which is especially valuable for 
milch cows. Bran undergoes a great improvement in its flavor by 
steaming. Rape cake is rich in albumen, phosphate and oil. I have 
cooked or steamed food for several years, and my experience of its 
benefits is such that, if I were deprived of it, I could not continue 
to feed with satisfaction. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH HAY, STRAW AND BRAN. 

Careful experiments made by me prove that sixteen pounds of 
hay steamed, are equal to twenty-four pounds of the same hay un- 
cooked. The test was in feeding five head of cattle one way, and 
five the other, for two weeks, showing those upon the sixteen pounds 
cooked to do the best. I reversed it and fed each upon the other's 
food, and found still those upon the steamed hay to do the best. 
Half hay and half good oat, barley or wheat straw, well steamed, 
was found better than hay uncooked. After several comparative 
trials I found that good oat, barley or wheat straw, with two quarts 
of wheat bran or coarse middlings to the bushel of straw, well 
steamed, was quite equal to the same weight of good hay ; and on 
this plan have wintered horses and cattle always with satisfaction. 

As a practical illustration of this way of feeding — several years 
ago, when keeping a stock that would consume thirty tons of hay, 
I sold seven tons of hay, and purchased with the avails seven tons 
of middlings and used upon straw, the stock wintering in fine con- 
dition. The straw was thus turned into twenty-three tons of hay, 
worth $18 per ton in barn, or $414. It will be seen by the testi- 
mony of Dewey and Stewart, under another head, that they found 
on a trial the past winter, two pounds of bran on a bushel of straw 
to make it better than hay. 

EFFECT UPON WORKING ANIMALS. 

Some who approve of cooking food for fattening animals, still 
doubt its use for working animals, but when thoroughly tested it 
will be found as valuable for working horses as those not in use. 
The food is more easily masticated and digested, and gives the 
horse all the time necessary to eat his food in the intervals of labor. 
Certainly, rendering food more digestible should not make it more 
unhealthy. Cooked food is more laxative than uncooked, as green 
grass is more laxative than hay, but a proper mixture of food will 
correct all relaxing tendency. I have had an opportunity of thor- 
oughly testing the healthf ulness of cooked food for working horses ; 
five horses having been fed, from eight to twelve years each, every 
winter upon steamed food, have always been healthy except when 
badly used. Two of them have been driven upon the road many 
years with heavy loads to and from the city, fifteen miles, and 



11 

sometimes misused by careless drivers, and taken sudden colcb, 
which have always been cured in a few days upon cooked food. 
These horses are eighteen and nineteen years old, and still sound, 
and capable of doing a good day's work. 

COOKED FOOD WILL CURE INCIPIENT HEAVES AND TROUBLE- 
SOME COUGHS MORE EFFECTUALLY THAN ANY 
OTHER REMEDY. 

Some years ago we purchased a horse eight years old, having 
the heaves, which were entirely cured by the use of steamed food, 
and have not since reappeared. We believe the general use of 
steamed food for horses would double their working ages. 

YOUNG ANIMALS. 

We have seen it objected that animals raised upon cooked food 
would be more flabby, having frames less thoroughly knit together, 
wanting in the requisite stamina, &c. Do such persons believe 
that grass is the best food for young animals in summer ? Would 
they object to grass as the diet of the young animal through the 
winter, if it could be provided ? If not, why should they object to 
cooked hay ? This is only the nearest approximation to grass pos- 
sible in the winter. Instead of being unnatural, it is all in accord- 
ance with the suggestions of nature. I have raised many colts from 
weaning age to five years, and never discovered any want of stam- 
ina. They are uniformly larger and stronger at the same age, be- 
cause they thrive equally in winter as in summer. 

This system is admirably adapted to the raising of young stock 
of all descriptions. The dairyman may have his heifers large and 
strong enough for cows at two years old, and thereby save a year's 
time and the labor of an extra year's care. Besides, it is found 
advantageous to develop the milking qualities of the heifer early. 
If of sufficient growth, she will be likely to make a better cow com- 
ing in at two than three years. 

SHEEP. 

It has sometimes been asserted that sheep possess such an ex- 
cellent grinding apparatus, that cutting or cooking the food for 
sheep is quite useless ; but there is probably no greater mistake 
than this. We tested this thoroughly the past winter, and found 
that instead of sheep being inclined to grind hard, tough substances 
more readily than neat stock, cutting and cooking hay, straw and 
cornstalks had a higher value for sheep. On feeding sixty sheep 
fifty pounds of excellent hay uncut, twelve pounds or twenty-five 
per cent, was left, and on feeding them fifty pounds of the same, 
cut -J inch, it was all eaten except some long pieces which passed 
through the machine parallel with the knives. Sixty-five per cent, 
of straw, fed uncut, was left ; while straw cut quarter inch, with 
two quarts of bran to the bushel, well steamed, was all eaten except 
the long pieces of straw. Cornstalks, cut short and steamed, will 



12 

be eaten clean, buts and all, by sheep, when they will eat nothing 
but the tops and leaves, without cutting. In fact, there is no ani- 
mal which will pay more liberally for thoroughly cooking its food 
than the sheep. 

Mr. G. A. Moore, before quoted, says : — " I was feeding sheep 
and cutting for them timothy hay, millet, carrots, and feeding with 
bean and oat meal. Before steaming, I found by weighing I was 
putting on two pounds of flesh per week: After steaming I put on 
three pounds per week, and the stock ate the food cleaner, and I 
noticed they laid down quietly after feeding." 

EFFECT OF COOKING UPON CORN MEAL. 

When fattening a lot of twenty steers (all of the same weight, 
1100 pounds), I tried the effect of cooking upon corn meal. Com- 
menced feeding each ten, three bushels of uncooked meal per day, 
with steamed hay and straw. This was readily eaten. Then a 
bushel and a half of meal was made into a thin pudding, and while 
briskly boiling, six bushels of short cut hay were stirredjin, and all 
well boiled together. This was fed each day to ten of the steers, 
while the other ten were still fed upon three bushels of uncooked 
meal. 

This bushel and a half of cooked meal appeared to satisfy the 
ten steers as well as the three bushels of uncooked. Each ten were 
thus fed till disposed of to the butcher, nearly four months, and 
the butcher pronounced the ten fed upon cooked meal the best. 
This would appear to prove that meal is doubled in value by 
cooking. 

FATTENING HOGS. 

Experiments in feeding hogs on cooked and uncooked grain 
have often shown a gain of one hundred per cent, by cooking, as in 
the above experiment with the steers. We will refer to a few of 
these experiments. 

Hon. Geo. Geddes, of Syracuse, N". Y., says : — " I find if I take 
ten bushels of meal and wet it in cold water and feed twenty-five 
hogs with it, they eat it well ; but if I take the same and cook it, 
it will take the same number of hogs twice as long to eat it up, and 
I think they fatten quite as fast in the same length of time." 

An accurate experiment detailed by S. H. Clay, of Ky., shows 
that a bushel of raw corn makes six pounds of pork, while a bushel 
of cooked meal makes seventeen and a half pounds. This result is 
very remarkable ; but James Buckingham, in the Prairie Farmer, 
gives an experiment, where three and a half bushels of corn in the 
ear made nineteen pounds of pork, and one bushel of cooked meal 
twenty-two pounds. 

Thomas J. Edge, lately, in Practical Farmer, detailing an ex- 
periment, says : — " I found that five bushels of whole corn made 
4*1% lbs. of pork. The same amount of meal well boiled and fed 
cold, made 83f Bbs. of pork. 



13 

FATTENING CATTLE— SWEET FOODS. 

In fattening animals time is often a matter of importance to 
the feeder. Sometimes a month gained is equal to 20 per cent, 
greater weight at a later period. Cooking food renders its con- 
stituents more soluble and digestible, therefore more rapidly enter- 
ing into the circulation, and causing much greater progress in lay- 
ing on flesh and fat. As a condiment and appetizer for fattening 
animals, molasses has no equal. A small quantity of sweet, used 
upon hay, will cause a larger quantity to be eaten with a relish. 
We have often tried molasses upon poor animals with great satis- 
faction. A poor horse will show a change in condition in a few 
days. The molasses is not only an excellent condiment, but an ex- 
cellent food ; and being so soluble and assimilable that it produces 
an immediate effect upon the condition of the animal. Three pints 
may- be fed to fattening animals per day, but to cows and breeding 
stock it must be fed sparingly, not more than a pint per day to a 
cow, as too much sweet will prevent their breeding. When neces- 
sary to use straw for fattening stock, the use of molasses diluted 
with eight to ten proportions of water, to wet the straw before steam- 
ing, will be found to render it very palatable, and cause it to "be 
eaten, incorporated with other fattening food, as readily as hay. 
Some noted chemists have supposed all starchy food to be convert- 
ed into sugar by the action of the stomach, before it becomes assim- 
ilated as food. Perhaps this will account for the remarkable effects 
of sweet food upon animals. 

FERMENTING FOOD. 

The merits of fermenting the food for animals have frequently 
been mentioned with commendation. 

But having practiced this system to some extent, and compared 
it with cooking, I will discuss it in this connection. In my early 
and defective attempts at cooking, when the food was only partially 
steamed, it was found to ferment most rapidly. 

After twenty-four to thirty-six hours, it was found difficult to 
induce animals to eat it. A slight fermentation is, perhaps, better 
than no preparation, as it partially softens the food, but it passes 
so rapidly beyond the proper point, that the system cannot be 
recommended. 

If we examine the nature of fermentation, we shall see that the 
result upon the food is entirely different from cooking. 

The different stages are : — 1st. Saccharine fermentation, chang- 
ing starch or gum into sugar ; 2& Vinous, changing sugar into 
alcohol ; 3d. Acetous, converting alcohol into vinegar : 4th. Putrid 
fermentation. 

These are steps in the progress of fermentation, and each de- 
notes a further change or decomposition of the material fermented. 

Nitrogen must be present to induce fermentation. There must 
be some nitrogenous matter in the food to act as a ferment when 
exposed to moisture and heat. Liebig' says ; — " We may compare 
fermentation and putrefaction with the decomposition which organic 



14 

compounds suffer under a high temperature. Fermentation may 
be considered as a process of combustion." 

During the fermentation of gluten, albumen, caseine, fibrin and 
other nitrogenous compounds, they are decomposed and various 
gasses formed in their stead ; so they cease to be valuable as food. 
If hay and straw be moistened with warm water, the nitrogenized 
matter they contain will cause fermentation to begin, and so far as 
it proceeds decomposition will follow. If carbonic acid is formed 
by the fermentation of hay, for example, so much of the heat pro- 
ducing element is gone ; and as this is promoted by its gluten, it 
must have lost in muscle forming matter. This loss will, therefore, 
be in proportion to the fermentation. 

The effect of a high heat is just the opposite. 

Nitrogenized substances, when subjected to the heat of boiling 
water, lose their power, temporarily, of exciting fermentation in 
other substances, and thus it is found that fermentation, which 
proceeds most favorably from 68° to 70°, is arrested at once, if the 
heat is raised to 21 2 Q Fahr. 

Every cook knows that fermentation of fruit is stopped by 
boiling, and rendered sweet again.. 

Steaming is therefore preserv ation, while fermentation is decay 
or destruction. 

STEAMING A REMEDY FOR CRYPTOGAMIC DISEASES. 

Farmers have often debated whether mildew, rust, smut, and 
other diseases of wheat, grass, corn, &c, did not render these un- 
healthful food for stock ; and since the Texas cattle disease has 
been attributed to the spores of a " species of fungous parasite" 
(micrococcus), which has been demonstrated to "infest the blood 
and bile of infected cattle ;" and that this parasite is probably com- 
municated from the indigenous herbage of Texas, (E. Harris' Re- 
port), much more anxiety has been manifested on this subject. But 
whatever danger there may be from cattle eating grasses, or other 
vegetation infested with this parasitic fungi, cooking offers a com- 
plete remedy. We have, for many years, noticed the effect of 
steaming upon rusty hay, straw and corn fodder. The transforma- 
tion is complete. The odor is changed, and this change is at once 
appreciated by the animals to which it is fed. It is well known that 
cattle do not willingly eat hay or straw thus affected, and are only 
prevailed upon to do so by hunger; but after cooking, the smell is 
so changed that they eat it with an appetite This consideration 
of health alone would be a sufficient remuneration for steaming the 
straw in a grain region. 

EFFECT OF FOUL SEEDS AND MANURE. 

Another important consideration is found in the destruction of 
the seed mingled in hay or straw, and which if fed in the ordinary 
way, and spread over the farm in the manure, will grow and increase 
the evil ; but the vitality of all these will be destroyed by cooking, 
and thus will it contribute to clean farms. The manure is also more 



w 

valuable, because more readily decomposed, and is always short 
and easily spread. Some have estimated the manure from cooked 
food twenty per cent, higher. 

COST OF COOKING. 

Next, let us see what it costs to cook food for stock that we 
may better determine whether it pays. 

When cooking for forty-eight head of cattle and six horses I 
found that it took two men and a boy, on the average, two and' a 
half hours per day to cut, mix and steam the food for them. I 
found that the labor, including the feeding, was equal to ten hours 
per day for one man. After the food is cooked, the labor of feeding 
is less than in the ordinary way. I found the extra expense of 
labor over common feeding, $60. It took ten cords of two feet, or 
five cords of four feet hemlock wood, to steam for the season, worth 
about $20, to which add the labor, makes the whole extra expense 
$80. The amount saved could not have been less than $10 per 
head, or $5 40. The saving in amount of food alone would equal 
this, besides being able to use much coarse fodder, and the better 
condition of the animals. 

PREPARING FOOD FOR COOKING. 

Hay, straw or coarse fodder should first be cut and then moist- 
ened with a large watering pot (if done by hand) at the rate of at 
least three gallons of water to five bushels of feed, while it is being 
stirred up with a fork ; then, if bian meal, or other more concen- 
trated food is to be fed with it, it should be sifted on evenly and 
mixed. A little salt may be added, which will be perfectly diffused 
through the mass. 

THE FEED MUST ALWAYS BE MOISTENED BEFORE STEAMING, 

for steam will not cook dry hay or straw ; moisture is required 
to absorb the steam. Many failures have occurred from attempting 
to steam hay dry. Where the labor is done by hand,*'a square six 
bushel basket will be found the most convenient for handling the cut 
feed and filling the steam box. The feed should be pressed into 
the steam box as more will be steamed and better. 

FOR A LARGE STOCK. 

Much labor may be saved by having the cows or animals ar- 
ranged in the lower story, in two rows, with their heads toward 
the feeding floor, which should be twelve feet wide, including the 
mangers ; and the steam box placed on the feeding floor, directly 
under the floor above, on which the straw cutter should stand, over 
the steam box, provided with a feeding apron, to save the labor of 
one man in feeding the hay or straw to the machine. Then in a 
hole through the floor, directly over the steam box, there will be 
placed a straight cask or cylinder, two feet in diameter, reaching 



16 

from top of floor down to near the opening in the steam box with- 
out a bottom, but a bar across the lower end, on which an upright 
revolving shaft will be set in the centre, provided with six arms 
just long enough to turn inside. This shaft will pass through a 
like cross bar on top and extending above enough to receive a 
pulley of the proper size, to revolve it about tour hundred times 
per minute. A bin over head for meal or bran, with a spout lead- 
ing to the top of the cylinder, as also a cask or reservoir of watei, 
with a pipe leading to it, furnished with a stop cock. A small belt 
will be carried from the power to the pulley on the top of this 
shaft. 

Now, when ready to fill the steam box, the straw cutter will 
be set in motion, as likewise the shaft in the cylinder, and discharge 
a certain amount of cut feed directly into the cylinder for mixing, 
and the meal or bran can be properly proportioned to the hay as 
cut, and the water likewise. It will be seen that the feed and meal 
and water, in passing through the cylinder, will come in contact 
with these swift moving arms, and, thoroughly mixed, fall into the 
steam box ready for steaming. Thus, one man, with this apparatus, 
driven by a good two horse power, can perform the whole operation 
alone, which would require three or more to do in the ordinary 
way. 

THE STEAM BOX. 

Should be made in the form of a round tub, tapering four inches 
at top, of inch and a half staves and two inch heads, hooped with 
six heavy bands or hoops ; and, in the arrangement we have sup- 
posed, there should be two steam boxes, each of which would hold 
a day's feed for the stock, or a capacity of two and one half bushels 
for each cow or grown animal, in which case the steaming would 
be done every other day. A wooden track should be laid in the 
centre of the feeding floor on which to run the steam boxes. One 
would be run under the cylinder and filled, and then moved away 
for use, while the other could be run under, filled and steamed. 
The man-hole in the upper head of the steam box should be two 
and one-half by three and one-half feet, where the tub is seven or 
more feet in diameter. This trap should be made as tight as pos- 
sible, so as to hold steam. The cover need be only inch and a 
quarter stuff, and there is no danger of bursting, however tight you 
fasten it, as it will leak steam under a small pressure. Or a strong 
cask may be made with two heads— slight bilge in centre, with 
trunions on each head, upon which to revolve it ; introducing the 
steam pipe through the trunion. This form of box could be made 
eight feet long and eight feet in diameter, and hold, when well 
rammed in, about 400 bushels. The man-hole would be at the bilge, 
revolved up to be filled, and down to be emptied. The man-hole 
should be surrounded by a strong frame, with hooks at each corner 
through which to run two bars over the cover ; wedges to be driven 
between the bars and the cover to hold it down firmly. 

There is an economy in using the best straw cutter, for rapidity 
and perfection of cutting is a necessity in saving labor. The first 



17 

requisite of a good straw cutter is a perfect feeding arrangement, 
delivering the hay or straw with exact regularity to the knives, 
which should be four, upon a revolving cylinder, having several 
different sized gears, to enable the operator to cut long or short, as 
the nature of the feed requires. With everything arranged in the 
most convenient manner to be performed as much as possible by 
power, one man may cut and steam for and feed one hundred head 
of cattle. 

CONCLUSION. 

These are the general considerations that have led us to regard 
cooking food for stock as the most important improvement for the 
stock feeder to introduce. 

The winter feeding is usually regarded as much the more ex- 
pensive, and any system which will reduce the expense of this one- 
third, should be eagerly adopted by the intelligent farmer. 

We have endeavored to illustrate it in so many aspects, that 
but few questions will arise which are not here considered. And, 
although the subject is not exhausted, yet we hope it may be a 
sufficient guide for those who have had no experience, and that it 
may be the means of calling the attention of hundreds to this great 
economy in stock feeding. 

That we may have some slight conception of the saving this 
system would make, if universally adopted, let us suppose that it 
would save $3 on keeping each of the neat cattle, or $66,000,000 ; 
$5 upon each horse and mule, or $33,700,000 ; $2 upon each hog, or 
$50,000,000 ; and $0.50 upon each sheep, or $20,000,000 ; making 
m afH $169,700,000 as the saving for a single year, and we believe 
this is not one half of the real economy that would result on its 
general adoption by the farmers of the United States. Is not this 
consideration vast enough to interest the millions of farmers ? 



COOKING AND FEEDING COOKED FOOD TO STOCK. 



BY W. H. WHITE, OF CONNECTICUT. 



Cooking food for feeding to stock is little understood and less 
practiced. The natural food and sustenance of our domestic animals 
of the farm is undoubtedly green herbage. After this is masti- 
cated and taken into the stomach, it is there readily dissolved by 
its juices with the digestive process, and assimilated into the system, 
thus supporting and contributing to the development of the animal, 
and the other objects in view. But as this green food is not to be 
obtained at all seasons in all places, it devolves upon man to pro- 
vide a substitute of as near the same nature as possible, . for con- 
sumption during this period ; and in order to insure the keeping of 
this material without decomposition, it is necessary that it should 
undergo certain processes of curing and drying. 

This process changes the character of the food to a hard, woody 
fibre, and the object of cooking is to restore the food as near as 
possible to its natural state, as well as. soften the grain and render 
the extract of the nutriment less laborious. All food taken into 
the stomach of an animal must go through a process analogous ., to 
cooking, and then a rther process before it can be assimilated in- 
to the system. If the cooking is performed before feeding, the food 
is much more readily assimilated, taxing the powers of the animal 
less in that direction, and giving an opportunity for directing its 
energies to the development of other desirable points. 

A considerable portion of the nutritive matter of the food of 
animals is starch. Chemists inform us that starch is not actually 
nutritive until it has been boiled, and the minute particles or grains 
burst or broken by the action of heat. 

The different lamina or layers of which each grain or part of a 
plant consists, increase in cohesion from the centre outwards. 
While the innermost layers present but little resistance to the diges- 
tive powers, the outer layers are hard to overcome. A considerable 
portion of uncooked food passes through the intestines whole, and 
entirely unaffected, even in its vitality ; and chemists, on examining 
the excrements of hot blooded animals fed on raw food, find un- 
broken grains of starch, showing that much alimentary matter is 
wasted and lost. There is also danger of accidents in feeding un- 
cooked roots, tubers, &c. 

The food an animal takes into its stomach must serve a variety 
of purposes, depending upon the object in feeding, or the end to be 



19 

obtained. In our vegetable products there exist substances more 
or less analogous to the several kinds of fat of the bodies of animals, 
so there also exist, ready formed, the phosphate of lime, phosphate 
of magnesia, common salt — of these the bone and muscles are large- 
ly composed. These are also associated with gluten, albumen and 
casein, all of which the food contains. 

Johnston, in his Agricultural Chemistry, in speaking of the 
action of heat on woody fibre, says : — " If wood be reduced to the 
state of fine sawdust, then boiled in water to separate everything 
soluble, afterwards dried by a gentle heat, and then heated several 
times in a baker's oven, it will become hard and crisp, and may be 
ground in a mill into fine meal. The powder thus obtained is 
slightly yellow in color, has a taste and smell similar to the flour of 
wheat ; it ferments when made into paste with yeast or leaven, and 
when baked gives a light homogeneous bread. Boiled with water 
it yields a stiff tremulous jelly, like that from starch. By the 

AGENCY OF HEAT, THEREFORE, IT APPEARS THAT THE WOODY 
FIBRE MAY BE CHANGED INTO STARCH." 

And, in speaking of the action of heat on starch, he says >- 
" When flour, potato or arrowroot starch is spread out on a tray, 
then introduced into an oven and gradually heated to a temperature 
not exceeding 300o F., it slowly changes, acquires a yellowish or 
brownish tint according to the temperature employed, and becomes 
entirely soluble in cold water. It is changed into gum. During 
the baking of bread this conversion of starch into gum takes place 
to a considerable extent. Thus Vogel found that flour which con- 
tained no gum gave, when baked, a bread of which 18 per cent., or 
nearly one-fifth of the whole weight, consisted of gum. Thus one 
of the effects of baking is to render the flour starch more soluble 
and, therefore, more easily digested." 

It is a property of starch to " readily dissolve in boiling water, 
and thicken into jelly or paste as it cools, but is insoluble in cold 
water. In the act of digestion starch undergoes the changes indi- 
cated above into gum or sugar, the latter being, as supposed by 
some, absorbed. The starch and sugar of the food of herbiverous 
animals is what supports respiration, and according to the theory 
of some eminent chemists contributes to the formation of the fat of 
animals. 

For the purpose of showing the proximate value of. some of the 
principal articles of food fed to stock, I here introduce tables from 
Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture : % 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF WHEAT STRAW. 

Muscle producing substances, 2.05 

Heat producing substances, , 35.06 

Wood fibre, 56.87 

Mineral substances, 6.02 



100.00 



^CULTIVATED GRASSES, DRIED AT 212° F.— Way. 

Flesh forming principles, 10.34 

Fat-producing " 2.51 

Heat producing " 41.29 

Woody fibre, 37.18 

Ash, 8.68 



100.00 



CORN FODDER AND BEAN STRAW. 



Salesbury. Way. 

Corn Fodder. Bean Straw. 

Flesh forming matters, 8.200 16.38 

Heat and fat producing matters,. . . 35.273 33.86 

Wood fibre, 50.251 25.84 

Ash,... 9.45 

Water, 6.276 14.47 

100.000 100.00 

INDIAN CORN AND WHEAT BRAN.— Salesbury. 

L Corn. W. Bran. 

Flesh forming principles, 15.192 18.00 

Heat producing " 78.866 63.00 

Fat producing " 5.945 6.00 

Water, 13.00 

100.000 100.00 

OATS AND RYE. 

Emmons Johnson. 
Oats. Eye. 

Flesh forming principles. 18.477 16.00 

Heat producing " 73.376 69.00 

Fat producing " 8.179 

Soluble phosphates, 3.06 

Water, 11.04 

100.000 100.00 

BARLEY.— Johnson. 

Flesh forming principles, 6.1 

Heat and fat producing principles, 69.3 

Husk,, 13.8 

Water,. ... 10.8 

100.00 



21 

BEANS AND PEA^ 

Peas. Beans. 

Husk, 8.3 1.0 

Legumen and albumen, 26.4 23.6 

Starch, 43.6 43.0 

Sugar, 2.0 0.2 

Gum, &c, 4.0 1.5 

Oil and fat, 1.2 0.1 

Salts, &c, 2.0 1,0 

Water, 12.5 23.0 



100.00 100.00 

These tables indicate at a glance the relative value of the dif- 
ferent kinds of food, and need no elucidation here ; but that there 
is a greater value, not here indicated, received from them when 
steamed or cooked, is the experience of those who have made the 
experiment ; some of them of little supposed value, proving equal 
to the best; and a further advantage is derived in showing how to 
mix proper food, to best serve the object in feeding. 

In order to the proper cooking of hay, stalks, straw, grain, &e., 
the former must be cut or chaffed, while grain must be gronnd ; 
potaoes and roots should be washed, if fed with the dirt and soil 
they are too loosening. 

Here steps in B, and says your theory of cooked food for stock 
looks very plausible, and seems well fortified with arguments, but 
how does it work in practice ? How are we to cook the food for a 
large stock ? And will it prove as profitable in practice as in 
theory ? In short, can it be made practicable and economical ? I 
answer that where experiments have been judiciously conducted, it 
has been found perfectly practicable, and also pays in the saving of 
feed, and the better condition and profit of the stock. 

Were this fact only verified under the practice of a single in- 
dividual, I should be the last one to urge its general adoption : but 
having been tried by numbers of individuals in different sections, 
and under varying circumstances, with uniform beneficial, practical, 
and economical results, it remains no longer a doubtful or untried 
experiment, nor the theory of a fanciful brain. It is applicable for 
either a small or large stock, requiring fixtures only of different 
capacities, although the comparative expense for only four or five 
head would be greater than for forty or fifty head. 

Steam is being introduced on many farms, for performing much 
labor to which other power has heretofore been applied, such as 
threshing grain, cutting fodder, sawing wood, &c. ; steam is one of 
the most, if not the best, practical means of cooking food ; and 
where it is impracticable to have the stationary steam boiler and 
works, we are furnished, through the inventive faculty and genius 
of man, portable steamers and boilers, which are not only practical 
but economical for cooking and steaming, as well as doing much 
other work of a less heavy nature, with less expense than with £the 
larger and more costly machinery. These steam generators and 



22 

boilers are being improved, so as to be more generally useful, and 
withal are so reasonable in price that the latter need be no serious 
objection, especially as the saving in feed and improvement of a 
stock of twenty to thirty head in a single season will cover the ex 
pense of the entire fixtures, and then they are good, with fair usage, 
for a large number of years, and will do eqnally good service. 
Prindle's steamer is acknowledged to stand at the head of all port- 
able steamers, with its latest improvements, for steaming, and has 
been brought to such a state of perfection that it is applicable to a 
variety of purposes of the farm, besides the mere steaming of fodder 
for the stock, which is not in my province to here notice. 

These steamers, or other boilers, &c, can be set in any con- 
venient building or shed, and the steam be conveyed through suit- 
able steam pipes any reasonable distance, to be connected with the 
steam boxes for holding the feed to be cooked. The great matter is 
to make these boxes strong enough to resist the pressure when ap- 
plied sufficiently to reduce the feed to a pulp, but for ordinary 
purposes a two inch pine or oak plank chest, iron bound, will be 
found sufficiently strong. There should be two such chests, for 
convenience in feeding and cooking, where the object in feeding is 
different, or where better food is desired for one part than the other 
of the stock. The size is determined by the amount of stock the 
food is cooked for. Two chests, each of the capacity of one hundred 
and twenty cubic feet, is sufficient for a stock of fifty head of horned 
cattle and one hundred sheep and three horses. These chests 
should be set convenient to the stock to be fed, or boxes may be 
arranged on trucks and shifted, for convenience in feeding, on the 
same floor level. Well filled and packed, as they should be for 
Gooking well, these chests will hold sufficient for one day's feeding. 
Steam every afternoon, and the feed is ready for use the next morn- 
ing, and will keep sufficiently warm through the day. The chopped 
hay, straw, and stalks are mixed and well moistened before they 
are put into the steam boxes ; and if meal or bran is fed, it is mixed 
with it, the same as for cut feed in the ordinary way. When the 
box is well filled, the lid is shut down, made fast, and steam let on 
and kept up from one and a half to two hours, at a pressure of ten 
to fifteen pounds. The expense of fuel for cooking this amount of 
fodder is about one cord of wood, or its equivalent, a week, and the 
wood need not be of the best quality. 

A very convenient arrangement would be to have the feed and 
cutting machines on a floor above the steam chests, resting on the 
floor, supported by a lower story ; the boxes, in such case, should 
have a side door near the bottom, besides the top cover, for con- 
venience in taking out the feed. The boxes may rest on the floor 
or be raised on a firm support, as circumstances call for. Set up 
your steamer or boiler in a building or shed, far enough away to 
be safe from fire, have a chimney with screen damper to shut off 
sparks of fire in a windy time, high enough for a good draught.* 
Conveniences would seem to be called for in providing stabling 

handy for feeding stock on cooked food, on a large scale. The 

— * 1 

* It amoke pipes and chimnies are properly constructed, no more danger need be appre- 
hended than in any stove pipe. 



23 



particular arrangements in all cases it is impossible to give, and 
must be made to adapt themselves to circumstances. The most we 
can do here is to say the steam boxes should be set, if stationary, 
with the stables on either side of them, and in as near a proximity 
as it is possible for convenience. Water should be provided for 
moistening the feed, being brought into the chests by conductors. 
Pipes with a sprinkling apparatus attached should also be provided, 
the fountain head being sufficiently high to furnish pressure for 
sprinkling, &c. 

I next and lastly notice the profit and advantage of feeding 
cooked food to stock. In the first place, there is always found a 
considerable amount of fodder on every farm that returns no profit 
except for the manure and compost heap. This, by cooking, is 
rendered palatable, and furnishes no inconsiderable amount' of 
nutriment; and in being consumed by the stock, less is lost to the 
manure heap than is gained by the stock. This is saved, and 
a less amount of storage room is required to store food for the 
same amount of stock, which, in these times, is no inconsiderable 
saving. 

Two-thirds of the amount of food cooked and fed will keep 
stock in better condition than if the whole amount be fed raw, as is 
proved by experience and observation, and the testimony of those 
who have given it a trial. It is not the case in a single instance 
only, but much proof could be introduced to corroborate the same. 
Much more experience has been had in feeding cooked food to 
fattening hogs than to other neat stock of the farm. 

COOKED FOOD FOR HOGS. 

_ The almost invariable testimony in feeding hogs with corn 
grain, or potatoes, is, that two bushels of cooked food make as 
much or more fat than three bushels fed raw. 

In the Practical Farmer for December, 1868, "Agricola" states : 
— " I have demonstrated to my own satisfaction, with the use of the 
Prindle steamer, and careful weighing, that while five bushels of 
boiled mush will make 84 ft>s. of pork, three bushels of meal and 
five bushels of potatoes will make 72| lbs. of pork." This shows 
the effect of mixed food cooked. In the same paper, T. J. Edge 
experimented with food in three different states on five pigs, fed at 
different intervals of a few days each, and found that five bushels 
of whole corn made 47f lbs. of pork ; five bushels (less miller's toll) 
ground and made into thick slop with cold water, made 54£ lbs. of 
pork. The same amount of meal, well boiled and fed cold, made 
83| lbs. of pork. In the Practical Farmer, of February, 1868, J. 
D. Isett says that " he formerly fed his team horses 70 lbs. of chop 
for each horse per week, besides the hay they would eat, and that 
by cooking his chop he found that his horses did better, looked 
better, kept in better spirits, and in every way were better, fed on 
50 lbs. per week than on the larger amount uncooked, making a 
saving, as he claims, in eight weeks, of $57.60." He also states in 
the same article : "lam now feeding my cattle and horses one 
bushel of wheat bran a day, and thirty bushels of cut cornstalks 



24 

and chaff, hay seeds or straw, mixed with fodder, and stable them. 
They are all in a nice thriving condition, and improving on the 
feed with some straw or hay in bulk, which they care very little 
about. I feed the horses, which work regular, six in number, four 
ears of corn, with their share of the steamed food, morning and 
evening — making a total cost of feed, thirty bushels cut corn fodder, 
one bushel of bran, and forty-eight ears of corn, to thirty-two head 
of stock per day, which, I think, is as little as can be got through 
with in this cold region." 

I might go on and quote from discussions at fairs, farmers' 
clubs, &c, from well known and eminent agriculturists, some of 
whom claim from experiments that two pounds of mixed cooked 
food fed to sheep equal three pounds of the same food fed raw. 
And others that one bushel of cooked meal will go twice as far fed 
to hogs as when wet up with cold water and not cooked. Others 
go still further, and claim a greater difference. 

The same difference is stated as experience in cooking hay and 
fodder for horned stock and horses. It is unnecessary to introduce 
further testimony, as all give the same result. 

Many fail at first in steaming dry fodder from attempting to 
do so without wetting it, or wetting insufficiently, which should be 
carefully attended to. 



THE ADVANTAGES 



OF 



COOKED FOOD FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



BY PEOF. J. WILKINSON, BALTIMORE, MD. 



A personal experience with, and close observation, for a period 
of over 40 years, of the comparative economy of feeding cooked and 
uncooked food to milch cows, fattening cattle, swine, horses, and 
poultry, has thoroughly established the conviction that there is 
great economy in judiciously cooking food for all the domestic ani- 
mals named above. 

The horses referred to were work horses, as I have never tested 
cooked food for those kept for speed or road driving, and my opinion 
is that uncooked food would be preferable for such. Neither have 
I had any experience in feeding sheep on cooked food, but believe 
that the return for the labor and cost in thus preparing their food, 
in the foddering season, will be found quite as remunerative as that 
realized from cooking for any other animal, and especially for ewes 
nursing lambs. 

More than fifty years ago the father of the writer, who was an 
extensive farmer in Eastern N". Y., reared and fattened annually a 
large number of swine. His practice was, as soon as the crops were 
gathered in autumn, to confine the swine in close, warm pens, and 
from that period until they were slaughtered they were fed entirely 
on cooked food, consisting of sweet apples, potatoes, pumpkins, and 
Indian corn meal. To these was added, while hot, the slops of the 
kitchen and the refuse of a butter dairy of 20 to 25 cows. 

Careful experiments with the same quantity and quality of food, 
cooked and uncooked, were repeatedly made, with the same animals, 
until, to use his own words, he " was convinced that he could not 
afford to feed uncooked food y" and yet, with the rude apparatus 
used by him, the labor and expense attending the operations of 
boiling and steaming (for he did both), were certainly 50 to 75 per 
cent, greater than with the best modern apparatus. 

The valuable lessons in the economy of feeding cooked food to 
swine, acquired by the writer at an early age, under paternal in- 
struction, were never forgotten, but were cherished and practiced 
perpetually, with the adoption of such improvements as were made 



26 

from time to time in apparatus for steaming and cooking food, not 
only for swine, but for all the animals that I have named. 

I conducted an Agricultural School and experimental farm for 
eight years, and experimented with feeding cooked and uncooked 
food of every description used, for cows, horses, swine, working and 
fattening cattle, and poultry, and carefully noted the result, which 
was in all cases very remunerative, so much so, that even with the 
defective, inconvenient, and expensive apparatus, used for want of 
better, in steaming, manipulating, and feeding, I decided there was 
an average net profit of fully 20 per cent., that is, in feeding the 
variety of animals named ; but in feeding swine for fattening, and 
milch cows for profit, in cold weather with warmed steamed food of 
every description, there was a profit of over 30 per cent., when the 
animals were kept at a proper temperature, and fed with proper 
proportions of nutritious rich food, and that less so. The advan- 
tages of steaming food for animals are numerous. 

Every variety of grain, ground or unground, roots, fruit, vege- 
tables, and forage, are rendered more palatable when animals are 
once accustomed to it — more nutritious, because they are more 
readily and more perfectly digested than uncooked food, and less 
liable to produce flatulency or bloating (called by the farmer hoove 
or hoven) — the cathartic or purgative tendency of fruits and roots 
is greatly diminished, and a larger quantity of food possessing 
qualities producing these effects, may be fed with impunity. While 
the qualities stated, imparted to food by steaming, axe invaluable 
in their chemical effect, a mechanical one, produced by thoroughly 
steaming and macerating the most palatable and highly nutri- 
tious provender, with which, as it were, to " sugar-coat" less pala- 
table and coarse forage, so that a larger proportion of it will be 
eaten, is no less important. The advantages arising from inducing 
animals to consume a liberal proportion of woody, coarse food or 
forage, with that whieh is highly nutritious, rich and hearty, are, 
that they are much less liable to become clogged when the food is 
thus mixed, than when the rich and palatable is fed separately. 
Ruminants are particularly benefited by feeding the macerated 
grain, roots, and the like, or coarse, cut and steamed forage, as they 
then have the power of raising and ruminating all the food thus 
mixed, and of extracting from it a larger proportion of the nutri- 
ment than can be effected when the various qualities of food are 
not incorporated. The secretions and digestion are greatly pro- 
moted by feeding a character of food that may be fed in such 
abundance, that the stomach and bowels of the animal shall be 
kept well distended. The correctness of this theory is well estab- 
lished, and to this mainly, the usual high condition of animals in 
pasturage, with no other food than grass, may be attributed their 
greater growth and thrift, than when fed liberally with grain, with a 
limited quantity of less nutritious food. The experience of the 
writer in feeding milch cows with steamed food, with the propor- 
tion of rich and less nutritious that he has recommended, is that he 
can make milk and butter, and doubtlessly the same is true in 
making beef and mutton, cheaper with the same animals when stall 
fed, than when pastured on land suitable for mowing and tillage, 



27 

and the quality of all the products will be much superior, and the 
additional amount of manure manufactured and saved will be an 
important item of profit. Steaming food properly, seems to impart 
to that which is dry, harsh and unpalatable, in a great degree, the 
succulent, palatable quality of grass, and yet not to a degree that 
it is injuriously laxative. 

Indian corn on the cob, if properly steamed, will be eaten by 
both cattle and horses, and is more economical thus fed than the 
corn without the cob. A cow may be fed two and a half bushels or 
more of tart apples per diem, if they are well steamed, mashed and 
mixed with cut straw, hay, or stalks of corn. The yield and quality 
of the milk and butter will be good, and the health of the animal 
as perfect as when fed on any other character of food ; but it will 
require six or eight days gradual increase to reach the maximum. 
The quantity of straw, hay, or stalks fed with the apples should be 
as great as the animal can be induced to eat. That there is great 
economy in steaming food for domestic animals generally, I think, 
is generally conceded by stock owners ; but there are various rea- 
sons why steaming is not more generally practiced. The chief is 
the prevailing opinion with farmers that steam generators are 
dangerous, troublesome, and expensive, and so complicated that 
one unaccustomed to their use would be unable to manage them with 
safety and profit. Hitherto there have been just grounds on which to 
base such opinions; but of late, science, inventive genius, and a just 
appreciation gf the actual demand for a cheap, safe, durable, and 
effective steam boiler, that any novice can run, has developed and 
given to the world, the farmer among others, a combined cauldron 
and steam generator that seems fully to meet every want in that 
direction. I refer to " Prindle's Patent Agricultural Steam Boiler 
and Furnace," which is, in the opinion of the writer, just what the 
farmer has so long needed ; and it is so simple, yet superior in con- 
struction, and made of such various sizes, that the owner of two or 
fifty cows can obtain just what he requires. Its safety valve I 
esteem one of the most valuable inventions of the age. 

I might extract innumerable reliable published statements o 
the result of the experience of those who have carefully experiment- 
ed with cooked and uncooked food, fed to a variety of animals, 
acquired both in this and other countries, which not only sustains 
me in the correctness of the statement of my experience, but far 
exceed what I claim for steaming. 

Could the farmer only save, by steaming the food of his animals, 
in the shape of the cereals usually ground, the cost of cartage to 
and from the mill, and the toll for and waste in grinding, it would, 
with many, be a heavy item ; but I am satisfied that this is not 
more than thirty per cent, of what may be saved, if the operation 
is conducted as it should be. 

Special care should be taken in preparing roots for steaming or 
boiling for ruminants, that the earth be all removed, as pebbles, 
and even particles of sand, are very injurious and dangerous in the 
stomachs of this class of animals. 

It is a common practice with those who cook food for animals, 
to salt the mass. . I have tested both methods, viz. : that of season- 



28 

ing the food, and of placing rock or other salt accessible to the 
animals at all times, and I much prefer the latter. Some animals 
relish a much greater quantity of salt than others, on the same food, 
and too much salt is much worse than too little. 

It was my purpose in commencing this article to confine myself 
mainly to a faithful recital of my own experience and observation 
in the subject matter under consideration, and were it not that I 
fear that the too great length of this desultory paper will detract 
from its usefulness, I might add a detailed account of my mode 
of steaming and feeding that would interest many readers. But 
suffice it to say, that I confidently recommend steaming for the 
animals that I have named, all grains, roots, fruits, vegetables and 
all coarse forage, and I believe that all who will judiciously test it, 
will find it as I have found it, very remunerative. I beg, however, 
in conclusion to say, that while we now have a very perfect steam 
generator, we still need great improvement in the arrangement and 
construction of the vessels in which to steam and macerate food. 

The season of working the large cheese and butter dairies of 
this country is rarely more than h of the year, as the dependence 
for food is on green vegetation, and generally on the pasturing 
system. With a properly arranged apparatus for steaming and 
preparing proper food, with proper stabling, and economical and 
good arrangements for controlling the temperature of the stables 
and dairy rooms, I am perfectly satisfied that three months could 
be added to the season, that neither the health of the animals nor 
the quality of the products would be in any way impaired, and the 
net annual profit would be greatly augmented. With the aid of 
the same steam generator used for cooking the food, the desired 
temperature of the dairy rooms could be maintained with ease, and 
a more uniform temperature secured than can be effected with the 
natural temperature of the most favorable season. 

I have furnished plans for a number of farm barns recently, in 
almost all of which I have made special provisions for steaming food 
for all the animals kept. I generally arrange them so as to obtain 
the water from rain water cisterns, and so place all the apparatus 
that it is secure from the effects of frost, and effectually guard 
against fire, which are important. 

I also so arrange the stable that I can avail myself of the steam 
generator as an auxiliary to the ventilating apparatus, by the aid 
of which I am am enabled to effect the most perfect ventilation. 

A proper supply and change of the air for animals is as import- 
ant as'the quality and preparation of their food. 

I would respectfully ask the indulgence of the reader of this, 
while I add a few sentences on a very important matter in this 
connection. 

I have known of two cases of the death of valuable cows that 
could be traced to no other cause than inflammation of the stomach, 
occasioned by swallowing pebbles and short pieces of nails, which 
were discovered by a post mortem examination. The pebbles were 
believed to have gotten into the food by setting the cornstalks fed 
on end in the field, and by cutting and mixing that portion of the 
stalk with the balance. 



29 

This should never be done, but a portion of the butts should be 
chopped off, and not be used as forage. 

The butts are not only liable to have stones and soil in the 
pith, injurious to cattle, but it frequently occurs that the saccharine 
matter of the stalk, particularly that portion resting on the ground, 
absorbs water and ferments, and produces acetic acid, which is not 
beneficial, and tends rapidly to acidify a mass of cut and steamed 
food, that would otherwise keep sweet for a number of days. 

The pieces of nails found in the stomachs of these animals, were 
probably swept up with the cut stalks on the feed room floor. 



EXTRACTS FROM 

A PAPER PREPARED BY H. S. COLLINS 

COLLINSYILLE, CONNECTICUT, 
FOR THE LEGISLATURE OF THAT STATE. 



" In a country like New England where every farmer keeps 
neat stock, their management is of the first importance. On them 
the farm relies ; without them it would be nothing. On their 
quality and products depend the profits, and without their manure 
the land would soon be worthless. As cows greatly predominate, 
not only in New England, but also in the middle States, their treat- 
ment should be the first care of the farmer. 

Here, where our main endeavor is to secure food enough for 
our animals through the long winter, where a milch cow must be 
fed fully two hundred days, and, to do her justice, partially fed 
twenty or twenty-five more, the question of winter management of 
cows is the one great problem to solve. 

In a state' of nature, cattle feed only on green and succulent 
materials. The grasses and succulent food of summer contain 
abundance of moisture, ferment readily and digest easily. When 
we force our cattle to grind up woody matter, not easily moistened 
nor easily soluble, there must be a waste of force, and much must 
escape undigested that is of value. 

Cutting and steaming reduces these dry substances to a condi- 
tion more nearly approaching their natural food. It breaks up and 
softens the hard fibres, moistens and swells the food, greatly assists 
the animal in its preparation, and renders available much that 
would otherwise remain undigested. Take, for instance, wheat 
straw, thought by many only fit for litter, immense quantities of it 
being thrown into barn yards to be trodden into manure. We find 
by analysis of A. Voelcker, that one hundred parts of wheat straw 
eontain§ 

If parts of oil — very nutritious, 
19-^ parts of soluble in dilute acid, 
5-g- parts of organic matter soluble in water, 
1^ parts of soluble inorganic matter, 
13-J parts of water, 
59 parts of insoluble and indigestible. 



31 

Of the five and a half parts organic matter soluble in water, 
one and one-fourth parts are albuminous or flesh forming material 
and four and one-fourth parts sugar, mucilage, &c. Now, it is not 
only the rich oil and the organic matter soluble in water which are 
available, but also that soluble in acid, for the stomachs of cattle 
possess this necessary acid, by which their digestive power is very 
largely increased. 

We have then available as food in a ton of wheat straw — 

35 pounds of oil, 
390 " digestible, 

26 " albumen, 

85 " mucilage. 

Let us see how far actual experiments justify this analysis. Mr. 
E. W. Stewart, of New York, says : ' I tried a long series of experi- 
ments to determine the quantity of middlings or meal necessary to 
mix with a bushel of straw to render it equivalent to the best hay. 
It was uniformly found that a bushel of straw with two quarts of 
middlings was quite equal to the same weight of cut hay, and was 
worth twenty-five per cent, more than uncut hay. It was also found 
that the animals would eat twenty-five per cent, more hay uncut 
than cut. The same experiment was then tried with corn meal, and 
one and a half pints found to make a bushel of straw equal to hay.' 
Mr. Skinner, of New York, made experiments on feeding in a simi- 
lar way, weighing his fodder daily. He ' fed forty-four head of 
milch cows on steamed straw and shippings, and twenty-six head 
on hay not steamed.' The straw was cut and steamed with the 
shippings. Each cow received ten pounds of straw and eight pounds 
of shippings, and the expense, including labor and fuel, was twenty- 
nine cents per head daily. The twenty-six cows on hay cost thirty- 
five cents per head daily, showing a balance of six cents per day 
each in favor of the straw and shippings. . Those fed on the straw 
were full and plump, were gaining flesh and doing better than those 
fed on hay.' 

In Alcsuth, Hungary, similar trials were made about the year 
1839, on a very large scale, resulting in a decided success. The 
trials were made on 

208 draught oxen, 108 days — daily profit of steaming, $13.00 

2,000 old wethers, 120 days " " 12.50 

34 stud horses, 180 days " " 1.42 

The profit on 180 days winter feeding on the above animals being 
$4,850, an amount quite worth saving. 

Cooking largely increases the bulk of the grain, a great advan- 
tage^in preparing it for feeding to cattle. 

4 measures of cprn have been increased to 13 
4 " • barley " " 10 

4 " bran " " 14 

Probably more experiments have been made in cooking food 
for pigs than for any other animals. These have been uniformly 



32 

successful, both in saving of materials used and in the increased 
production of fat. Stephens, one of the highest English authorities, 
says, in his Bo^k of the Farm : ' It has been found by direct experi- 
ment that pigs fatten much better on cooked than on raw food. It 
is only waste of time and materials, and also loss of flesh, to attempt 
to fatten pigs on raw food of whatever kind, for although some kinds 
of food fatten better than others in the same state, yet the same sort 
when cooked fattens much faster and better than in a raw state.' 
The question simply is — what is the best sort of food to ' cook for 
fattening pigs.' 

Numerous experiments in this country confirm the opinion, 
that the saving by cooking is fully as high as thirty per cent. 
Indian corn, especially, should never be fed whole, particularly to 
horned cattle. The kernel is nearly impervious to the gastric juice, 
and will pass undigested. No grain is more improved by cooking, 
or of greater benefit in fattening; but it should be fed sparingly to 
milch cows, and, as a rule, only to those whose condition it is de- 
sirable to improve. It furnishes abundance of phosphate of lime, of 
which the bones of animals are more than half composed, and is of 
great value to the growing stock. . The cobs of ripe corn are worth- 
less, except as furnishing bulk, as they contain almost no nutritive 
matter. The bran both of wheat and rye, is one of the most valu- 
able milk-producing foods. It is much improved by steaming, giv- 
ing forth a sweet flavor and increasing largely in bulk. It is neces- 
sary, however, to cook it daily, as it readily ferments and becomes 
sour. When the coarser kinds are fed largely for milk — oil meal, 
corn meal, or some fattening food will be needed to prevent a loss of 
flesh. In my own neighborhood rye bran is thought more valuable 
than wheat, and commands a higher price, and my own experience 
is in its favor. It is usually of a better quality, but I see nothing 
in its analysis to justify this impression. In some sections rye is 
much infested with ergot, and I have of late years hesitated to buy 
the bran in market, but I have heard of no bad results from its use. 
Buckwheat bran is largely milk-producing, but is thought by some 
to be injurious to the health of cows. I have fed it for several 
years, and perceived no such effects, but have been always careful 
to use it in connection with other materials. Cows having four to 
six quarts of this per day will milk freely, but lose flesh more rapid- 
ly than on wheat or rye bran. 

Linseed oil-cake has been long and favorably known as an ar- 
ticle of food for cattle. It increases fat and milk, and is of great 
use to the farmer. More lately, cotton seed meal has been found to 
supply its place, being in some respects still more valuable. It is 
richer in oil and albuminous material, and should, therefore, be fed 
in less quantity than linseed meal. Some have attributed bad 
effects to its use — both loss of calves and injury to milch cows — 
but the greater weight of testimony is in its favor. Calves are 
easily injured by over-feeding with rich material, or by too sudden 
change of food. I have fed it for years, buying by the car load, 
and have not seen any ill effects from its use ; but I prefer linseed 
for calves as being probably more gentle in its action, and never 
give either to young calves without first cooking it to a jelly, and 



33 

mixing it with other warm food, beginning with a very small quan- 
tity. The flavor of cotton seed meal is peculiar, and generally dis- 
liked by cattle at first, though they soon become fond of it. No- 
thing gives so glossy a coat to either old or young animals, and no 
cattle food has been so cheap in proportion to its real value as cot- 
ton seed meal. To milch cows two or three quarts daily may be 
given with marked effect, both on their condition and yield of milk, 
and without communicating any perceptible taste to the milk. Some 
feed four to six quarts per day, but my own experience is strongly 
in favor of variety of food, and I do not find a proportional increase 
from feeding largely of any one material. Oil meal is somewhat 
laxative in its effects, and cows calving in winter being often 
troubled with constipation, a feed of two to three quarts of oil meal 
daily for a few weeks before and after calving, will produce a bet- 
ter condition, give them more strength, and tend to increase the 
future yield of milk. Cotton seed should always be decorticated. I 
have never fed cotton seed meal dry, usually have steamer it. To 
extract all its nutriment and use it to the best advantage it should 
doubtless be cooked to a jelly. 

Barley is not often used here for feeding cattle, except near 
cities where brewer's grains or malt sprouts are obtainable. These 
increase the flow of milk largely, and are often fed in too large 
quantities. The grain itself I have found nearly equal to wheat 
and rye, and on suitabl e soils it is more profitable to raise for feed- 
ing cattle than any other cereal. For both fattening and milk it is 
excellent, and for horses is probably better than any other feed. 

Beans are much used as cattle food in England, and their 
chemical composition would show them very valuable, but they are 
too high in price here to be much fed. I have bought second quality 
beans when I could get them for $0.75 to $1.25 per bushel, and fed 
them ground into meal with good effect. Peas I have never been 
able to buy at such prices as 1 could use them for cattle food. 

Roots are almost indispensable where dry hay is used. Fed in 
small quantities they do not lessen the amount of hay consumed, 
but act rather as an appetizer, prevent constipation, enable the 
animal to obtain more nutriment from its other food, increase the 
milk, and keep the cow in a more healthy condition. Sugar beets 
I find the best for cows, and though this root is said not to give as 
large a product per acre as mangold wurtzel, there is little or no 
difference with me. The leaves of beets are of much value for soil- 
ing. My practice has been to commence early and harvest them 
only as fast as I could feed the leaves. My cows always increase 
in milk and do well upon them. Chemically the leaves are said to 
possess more nutritive value than the roots themselves. 

Carrots make the best of winter butter, but cost me too much 
to feed the cows. Swede turnips are useful, but must be fed spar- 
ingly to milch cows on account of the strong flavor given to the 
milk. Potatoes, though not ordinarily raised as food for stock, are 
yet always in the farmers' hands, and more or less fed every year. 
They rank high in nutritive value, far above other roots. 

The finer grasses I usually reserve to feed to such working 
cattle or young stock as are in other barns, and cannot be fed with 
3 



34 

steamed food. For milch cows all grass should be cut early. Oat 
straw is next in value to hay, and is readily eaten. Wheat straw 
comes next, and is valuable to me in mixture, but it needs to be 
well steamed. Barley straw I use when it is bright and good. It 
is not as good as oat straw, and is almost worthless uncooked, on 
account of the long beards. Rye straw is hardly worth steaming, 
and when used is mixed in sparingly. Pea or bean straw is useless 
to me uncooked, but when steamed is savory and readily eaten. It 
is rich in albuminous material, containing about twice as much 
meadow hay, and is valuable for milch cows. 

Annexed is a table showing the comparative value of the differ- 
ent cattle foods alluded to, which is worth careful study : 

Per centage of fat Per centage of flesh Total nutritive per 
formers in 100 lbs. formers in 100 lbs. centage in 100 lb«. 

Potatoes, 18.9 1.4 20.3 

Sugar Beet, 13.6 .9 14.5 

Mangel Wurtzel, 12.6 1.0 13.6 

Parsnips, 7.0 1.2 8.2 

Carrots, 6.6 .6 7.2 

Swedes Turnip, 5.2 1.0 6.2 

White Turnip, 3.3 .9 4.2 

Best English Hay, 36.3 13.5 49.8 

Lucerne Hay, 38.0 12.7 50.7 

White Clover, 40.0 18.7 58.7 

Red Clover, 18.7 22.5 41.2 

Indian Corn, 66.7 11.0 77.7 

Rye Meal, 55.8 14.3 70.1 

Linseed Cake, English,. 51.0 .22.1 73.1 

Linseed Cake, Americ'n 48.6 22.2 70.8 

Oat Meal, 51.1 18.0 69.1 

Barley, 52.0 13.0 65.0 

Peas, 41.9 23.1 65.0 

Beans, 39.7 24.0 63.7 

Buckwheat, 52.1 9.0 61.1 

Cotton Seed Meal, 33.49 41.25 74.74 



COOKED FOOD FOR FARM STOCK. 



To accuse farmers of being in any sense extravagant or impru- 
dent, would be to fly in the very face of generally expressed popular 
sentiment. As a class, they are proverbially regarded as economi- 
cal, with, of course, here and there an occasional exception. But 
when the real facts are fully and fairly considered and understood, 
it must be confessed that, in a great many important particulars, 
they are among the most wasteful of the community. They may 
not dress expensively, furnish their houses extravagantly, load their 
tables with costly and enervating luxuries, drive fast horses, or 
indulge in any of the whims and caprices which are invariably con- 
nected with what is generally termed high living ; and yet there 
are very many of them who, in the management of their farms, are 
improvident and wasteful to a culpable degree — in the breeding 
and rearing of farm stock ; in the want of attention to the comfort 
and health of their horses and cattle ; and to the almost universal 
disregard of economy in stock feeding. It is to this last item that 
we propose more particularly to address ourselves in the remarks 
which are to follow. 

In the earlier periods of agricultural history, the feeding of 
stock, in common with almost every other operation of the farm, 
was regarded as a matter requiring little thought or attention. 
Except in rare cases, little or no thought was given to the economy 
of feeding, nor was it a common thing to suppose that science had 
anything to do with this important department of the farm. 

Recent scientific theories, practically illustrated, have conclu- 
sively proven the possibility of so preparing stock food that itgs 
value shall be nearly doubled, without involving a corresponding 
increase of cost in its preparation. This was the important point 
sought, and its attainment the object of much patient and persever- 
ing research and experiment. Now that there appears to be no 
reasonable doubt in the minds of intelligent men who have devoted 
to it their time and attention, the season has arrived when the 
farming community at large should enjoy the benefit of these din- 
coveries. In many sections, this long and much needed reforma- 
tion has already commenced, and the value of these scientific 
theories, in relation to stock feeding, is being practically tested. 
In other sections, a spirit of earnest inquiry has been aroused, which 
cannot but result advantageously to the general stock interest of 
the nation. 

The importance of this subject can scarcely be over-estimated ; 
and in no way can it be more satisfactorily demonstrated than by a 



36 

reference to the figures of the Census of I860, which shows that, in 
the Northern States alone, the number of horses was 5,277,950 ; of 
asses and mules, 390,457; of neat cattle, 16,675,325; of sheep, 
17,198,219; and of swine, 19,180,379. Such statistics as these are 
almost over-powering, and yet, it must be remembered that they 
refer to only one portion of our country. They foot up the enor- 
mous total of 58,722,321 animals, and all of them to be subsisted 
on the products of the soil alone. 

To maintain the digestive organs of domestic animals in a per- 
fectly healthy condition, should be an object of primary considera- 
tion with the farmer. Impaired digestion is the legitimate cause 
of nine-tenths of the diseases which afflict men and domesticated 
beasts. This may seem strong language, but the assertion is sus- 
tained by unanswerable faets. The avoidance, therefore, of every- 
thing calculated to impair the digestive powers of animals becomes 
a subject which claims general attention. 

Nature has provided every animal with a digestive apparatus, 
which is capable of performing a certain amount of duty only. 
These organs should not be unduly taxed ; when this is done, the 
result is inevitable disease. To avoid this, it becomes important 
that food should be presented for their action in a perfectly masti- 
cated condition. Where this is not the case, a double duty is 
imposed upon them — the vital energies are taxed in dissolving a 
mass of unbroken food to a degree that amounts in many cases to 
such absolute exhaustion as to prevent the proper assimilation and 
absorption of the chyle. As a result, the damage sustained by the 
system, instead of being restored by the food taken, is, if anything, 
increased. The entire process is debilitating. These are not new 
theories — they are the plain teachings of science, practically ex- 
emplified daily in man as well as in beasts. Stock owners are 
therefore deeply interested in the subject. They should know pre- 
cisely what character of food to give their animals in order that 
their digestive organs may not be taxed beyond the limit which 
nature intended. 

The ruminantia, or animals that chew the cud, have not the 
power of digesting grains and certain herbs, unless they have been 
previously broken. Unbroken seeds and herbs, enclosed in linen 
bags, introduced into their stomachs, merely undergo a moistening 
or softening process. Similar grains and herbs, mashed or broken, 
and introduced in bags of the same character, undergo complete 
digestion. The same experiment made upon horses show like 
results. Such experiments are practical, and ought to be conclusive. 

Experiments with the gastric juices taken from the stomachs 
of different animals, and mixed with various kinds of broken food, 
produced no perceptible effect, except to prevent putrefaction, while 
the significant result was obtained that they did not act upon grains 
or certain herbs at all, until they were ground or broken, and mixed 
with the saliva. These interesting facts prove the absolute neces- 
sity of presenting food of this character to animals which have not 
the power of masticating it, in a triturated or broken condition. 

Taken whole into the stomach of a ruminant, or indeed of any 
animal, seeds retain their vitality. The gastric juices do not affect 



37 

them, and, as a consequence, their nutritive principles are entirely 
withheld from the absorbent vessels. The feeding of whole grain, 
therefore, to ruminants, as the ox and sheep, is to be regarded as 
simply wasteful. 

In the case of horses, who have the power of masticating their 
food, the feeding of whole grain may not at first appear so objec- 
tionable, but there are strong arguments against it. Some horses 
bolt their food ; others, from defective teeth or sore gums, are 
unable to masticate it properly ; while, in nearly all cases, a greater 
or less number of the unbroken grains are swallowed whole, and, 
of course, pass off undigested. We have shown that the gastric 
juices do not affect whole seeds ; the farmer, therefore, who desires 
to avoid the risk of having such seeds pass through animals un- 
changed, and who prefers to have them subjected to the solvent 
powers of the gastric juices, and made to undergo the entire process 
of assimilation, and rendered profitable, will readily understand 
what course he should pursue. 

But is not whole grain, as well as the broken, susceptible of 
such preparation as will obviate all the difficulties we have pointed 
out ? Is there not a method by which whole or broken grain, hay, 
and other stock food can be so improved in its good qualities, 
and at such a cost as to render it an object with the farmer to 
adopt it ? 

Steaming or boiling, it is well known, effects great changes in 
the chemical as well as mechanical condition and quality of food. 
Many substances, which in their raw state are indigestible and 
unfit for food, become nutritious and wholesome when steamed or 
boiled. Some of these are not merely indigestible, but inedible, 
and wholly unfitted as food for man or beast, in their natural state. 
The action of heat and moisture produces an entire change in 
their character, and renders them valuable. There are others 
which, in their raw state, are innutritious and unpalatable, but 
which, when boiled or steamed, become valuable and acceptable 
articles of food. 

If thorough mastication be essential to perfect digestion, then 
the mechanical division of food must be regarded as greatly facili- 
tating that important operation, and, of course, in rendering such 
food more advantageous to the animal, and consequently more pro- 
fitable to the owner. A distinguished writer says : — 

" The boiling of cattle food, by performing or facilitating its 
division, is one of the best means known of promoting digestion, 
and even of increasing the quantity as well as quality of the alimen- 
tary substances, which undergo this process. This advantageous 
result appears to originate in part from the circumstance, that the 
molecules of the alimentary substance are separated by the coctioa 
they undergo, and thus present a greater surface to the influence of 
the gastric juice ; and partly from the influence of the water wherein 
they are immersed, as well as of the high temperature to which 
they are exposed, augmenting the nutritive powers. The water 
seems actually to become solid, as in the making of bread, by enter- 
ing into union with them, or imparting its hydrogen, which after- 
wards becoming united to carbon, may contribute towards the 
formation of fat. 



38 

" These facts have been established by a great number of ex- 
periments, with roots, grains, and even with boiled hay or grass, 
used for fattening domestic animals. Potatoes and Jerusalem arti- 
chokes, which, in their natural or raw state, are either cared for but 
little by the cattle, or are unprofitable, acquire, by boiling, new pro- 
perties, which render them extremely advantageous after having 
undergone this operation. 

" As a confirmation of the soundness of these views, regarding 
the superiority of boiled over raw food for the lattening of cattle, 
we have only to consider for a moment what actually takes place 
every day in the case of man. We here see how greatly substances 
which have been submitted to the action of heat, such as bread, 
meat, soups, broths, and other articles, surpass those used in their 
natural state. A small quantity of wheat, maize, barley or rice, 
Well boiled, and eaten warm with a little milk, gains in nutritive 
matter an immense superiority to the same quantity of these sub- 
stances, eaten without this preparation. The same remark is 
applicable to all kinds of grain." 

We thus find that science as well as experience demonstrate 
uumistakably the advantages which are to be derived from the use 
of steamed or boiled food. It is asserted, on competent authority, 
that these advantages are fully equal to 30 per cent., and by some 
they are claimed to be greater. 

We have already alluded to the importance of thorough masti- 
cation, in regard to digestion ; and that one of the most prolific 
sources of indigestion, and the diseases which almost invariably 
follow it, is the presentation of imperfectly masticated food to the 
action of the gastric juices of the stomach. Although the teeth 
of the horse are adapted to grinding of grain, yet he is not usually 
given sufficient time; he consequently performs the masticating 
process imperfectly. Now the structure of the horse's stomach is 
such, that the digestion of partially broken, or even whole grain, is 
better secured than in some other animals. It is supplied with a 
coating that " acts in a triturating way," and thus promotes the 
digestion of the food submitted to it. 

Notwithstanding this "triturating" apparatus, grains frequently 
pass through the alimentary canal in the same condition as when 
they entered the stomach, with the exception of the ordinary 
changes wrought by the animal heat and moisture to which they 
have been subjected. The fact, therefore, stands unimpeached, that 
this portion of his food has not been digested, and consequently has 
not proven of the slightest advantage to him. A horse's stomach 
is remarkably small in proportion to the other parts of his body. 
This is one of nature's wise provisions. Its location with reference to 
the diaphragm, is such, that any undue distention of it, not only dis- 
tresses the animal, but is frequently the cause of irreparable injury. 
Indigestible food does not pass so quickly from the stomach as that 
which readily submits to the action of the gastric juices. As a- 
consequence, raw whole grain sometimes remains there longer than 
it should, and not unfrequently produces diseases which result 
fatally, or at least impair the permanent usefulness and value of the 
animal. Inspiration is interfered with by the undue distention of 



39 

the stomach ; and hence we so frequently find the animal quickly 
blown, when put to active exercise immediately after a full meal. 
If, therefore, the food is presented in an already partially masticated 
condition, such as is produced by the process of boiling or steaming 
the digestive organs act upon it more immediately, and all danger 
from too much detention is removed; to which must be added 
the important fact, that the whole, or at least a greater portion 
of the nutritive matter of the food taken, is turned to the animal's 
advantage. 

In the case of ruminants, who are furnished with four stomachs, 
the food is re-masticated after it has passed into the rumen or first 
stomach. Liquid, or food that has been thoroughly comminuted 
does not undergo this process of re-mastication, but passes at once 
into the third and fourth stomachs. But this is not the case with 
such dry and solid vegetable matter as usually constitutes the food 
of this class of animals. It is not necessary to enter into a minute 
detail of the process generally known as " chewing the cud," which 
is in fact the reducing to pulpiness, or liquidity, such articles of food 
as hay, fodder, &c. Mr. Wilson says : — 

" One important practical lesson suggested by the nature of 
rumination, is the proper feeding of cows, in order to produce the 
greatest quantity of milk. If they are fed on very dry food, such 
as hay, the greater portion of fluids in the blood will be spent in 
the process of rumination and digestion, and the milk will be scanty ; 
but if they be fed on aliment which abounds in liquid, such as 
mangel wurtzel, or brewer's grains, and distiller's wash, as in Hol- 
land, they will ruminate much less, a less quantity of saliva will 
be required for chewing the cud, and a large proportion will go to 
the production of milk, though this will be thinner and not so rich 
in cream as the milk produced from drier food." These are facts 
which the milk dairyman should take into earnest consideration. 

Having thus shown what are some of the advantages to be 
derived from the use of cooked food — although many others might 
be named — the question that naturally suggests itself is, " will it 
pay?" 

Oa this point there appears to be some little diversity of 
opinion, though those who are skeptical in regard to the profitable- 
ness of the cooked food system, are generally such as have either 
not practically tested the matter ; or, if they have done so, had not 
the proper kind of appliances for its economical trial. There are 
few farmers who, in view of the increasing scarcity and price of 
fuel, could be prevailed upon to believe that, with an ordinary 
kettle or caldron, or with any number of them that might be found 
requisite for the purpose, food for their stock could be cooked with 
profit. The cost of the fuel would not be the only obstacle. The 
handling of the cooked material, in putting it into the kettles or 
caldrons, and its transfer when cooked to the troughs of the animals 
to be fed, would necessarily involve a heavy outlay of time and 
labor. It would not be safe to locate such large open fires as would 
be absolutely necessary, to cook any considerable amount of food, 
anywhere in the immediate vicinity of the barn or feeding sheds. 
As a consequence, the materials would require to be carried from 



40 

and to the place where they would be wanted for the animals, which, 
if the stock were large, would demand either considerable outlay 
for a light railway, or the carrying of it by hand in buckets or other 
vessels. In addition to this, the process of cooking the amount of 
food that would be needed for the stock of a farm of ordinary size, 
would be slow and tedious, as well as expensive ; and unless proper 
attention was given to it all the time the cooking was in progress, 
there would be great danger of having the material ruined by 
scorching or burning. 

For these and other reasons that might be adduced, it is easily 
understood why farmers who have no other conveniences than 
those referred to, would naturally come to the conclusion that 
cooking food for their stock would be attended with more cost 
than profit. 

But, in this age of progress, farmers who desire to feed their 
stock on boiled or steamed food, are not confined to such primitive 
resources. The skill and ingenuity of American inventors have 
fully overcome these obstacles. With the use of these modern im- 
provements, not only are dangers from fire avoided, but such other 
arrangements have been devised as lessen not merely the consump- 
tion of fuel, but in a great measure the expense of handling and 
re-handling the raw and cooked material. By the use of steam 
generators, which can now be procured at a cost but little exceed- 
ing that formerly paid for a simple caldron, fuel is largely econo- 
mised — much less attention to the steaming process is necessary — 
it is much more easily and rapidly accomplished — almost any desired 
amount of food can be steamed by one and the same operation ; 
and, what is equally important, the cooked material can be kept 
warm for a considerable length of time. This latter is very desir- 
able, for the reason that when fed moderately warm, the cattle 
appear to relish it better; while, at the same time, it refreshes them 
more quickly than when allowed to become cold before it is given 
to them. Cooking renders it more digestible, and it is more easily 
assimilated. The absorbing vessels are thus enabled more readily 
and fully to act. Animal heat is necessary for digestion ; therefore 
cooking renders food more nutritious. No horse likes it when cold ; 
many refuse it, and most of them prefer the raw article to that which 
has been boiled and become cold. 

Were it necessary, the testimony of a large number of the best 
farmers of Pennsylvania, and other States, could be furnished in 
behalf of the economy of boiled or steamed food, prepared by means 
of these lately and greatly improved appliances. The subject has 
been carefully investigated by shrewd and intelligent men, who 
have given it their close attention, for the sole purpose of determining 
the great question of economy ; and the almost unanimous conclu- 
sion — so far as the writer has had opportunities of ascertaining — is 
decidedly in favor of the cooked food system. 



THE ADVANTAGES OF COOKING FOOD 

FOE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



TheU. S. Agricultural Report of 1865 has an able article on 
" Steaming Food for Stock," from the pen of E. W. Stewart, of 
New York State. Mr. Stewart writes after years of experience in 
this branch of agriculture, and he sums up the result of cooking as 
follows : — 

First. It renders mouldy hay, straw, and corn stalks perfectly sweet and 
palatable, Animals seem to relish straw taken from a stack which has been wet 
and badly damaged for ordinary use ; and even in any condition, except " dry 
rot," steaming will restore its sweetness. When keeping a large stock, we have 
often purchased stacks of straw, which would have been worthless for feeding in 
the ordinary way, and have been able to detect no difference, after steaming, in 
the smell or the relish with which it was eaten. 

Second. It diffuses the odor of the bran, corn meal, oil meal, carrots or 
whatever is mixed with the food, through the whole mass ; and thus it may 
cheaply be flavored to suit the animal. 

Third. It softens the tough fibre of the dry cornstalk, rye straw, and other 
hard material, rendering it almost like green succulent food, and easily masticated 
and digested by the animal. 

Fourth. It renders beans and peas agreeable food to horses, as well as other 
animals, and thus enables the feeder to combine more nitrogenous food in the 
diet of his animals. 

Fifth. It enables the feeder to turn everything raised into food for his stock, 
without lessening the value of his manure. Indeed, the manure made from 
steamed food decomposes more rapidly, and is therefore more valuable than when 
used in a fresh state. Manure made from steamed food is always ready for use, 
and is regarded by those who have used it as much more valuable, for the same 
bulk, than that made from uncooked food. 

Sixth. We have found it to cure incipient heaves in horses, and horses 
having a cough for several months at pasture have been cured in two weeks on 
steamed food. It has a remarkable effect upon horses with a sudden cold, and 
in constipation. Horses fed upon it seem much less liable to disease ; in fact, in 
this respect, it seems to have all the good qualities of grass, the natural food of 
animals. 

Seventh. It produces a marked difference in the appearance of the animal, 
at once causing the coat to become smooth and of a brighter color — regulates 
the digestion, makes the animal more contented and satisfied, enables fattening 
stock to eat their food with less labor, (and consequently requires less to keep up 
the animal heat,) gives working animals time to eat all that is necessary for 
them in the intervals of labor, and this is of much importance, especially with 
horses. It also enables the feeder to fatten animals in one-third less time. 

Eighth. It saves at least one-third of the'food. We have found two bushels 
of cut and cooked hay to satisfy cows as well as three bushels of uncooked] hay, 
and the manure in the case of the uncooked hay contained much more fibroUB 
matt er > unutilized by the animal. This is more particularly the case with horses. 

These have been the general results of our practice, and, we presume, do not 
materially differ from those of others who have given cooked food a fair trial. 



42 

From Thos. J. Edge, Esq., in the " Practical Farmer," December, 1868. 

[Thomas J. Edge is one of our very best practical farmers,, 
and a most accurate one in his observations and experiments." — 
Editor.] 
To Paschal Morris : 

Thy letter asking for the result of my experiments with cooked 
food for pigs was duly received, and, but for the pressure of fall 
Work, would have been answered ere this. 

My first experiment was with old corn, in three forms, viz. : 
shelled and fed whole ; ground and made into slop with cold water j 
and ground and thoroughly cooked. 

The pigs, five in number, were from the same litter, and were 
the produce of a good common sow, crossed with a Berkshire boar. 

In each case the food was given them as fast as consumed, and 
all possible care taken to avoid any waste or irregularity of feeding ; 
in every case of a change of food three days was allowed before the 
weighing for the experiment, in order that the effect of a sudden and 
entire change of diet might not affect the result. 

I found that five bushels of whole corn made 47f lbs. of pork. 
Five bushels {less miller's toll,) of corn ground and made into thick 
slop with cold water, made 54-J- ibs. of pork. The same amount of 
meal well boiled and fed cold, made 83^- lbs. of pork. 

With the whole corn the pigs had the slops from the kitchen 
(no milk) and for drink with the boiled mush, one or two quarts 
were thinned with cold water or slop from the house ; in each case 
the house slop was used in some form or other, but all the milk was 
reserved for small pigs. The fifteen bushels of corn cost $1.30 per 
bushel ; and thee will notice that, while the pork made from the 
whole corn barely paid for the corn, that from the same amount of 
ground corn cooked, paid the whole cost of the corn and a little 
more than one dollar per bushel over, — and that the economy of 
grinding and making into slop will fully warrant the extra trouble 
and expense. How could it be otherwise, when the whole economy 
of profitable feeding consists in bursting or breaking the indigestible 
hull which encloses the minute particles of the food ? 

In the above experiment the data are based upon pork at $14 
per cwt., and corn at $1.30 ber bushel ; but it will apply as well to 
other prices. 

The second experiment was exclusively with new corn, in two 
forms, viz. : on the ear, and shelled and ground before boiling ; and 
all in each case was what we know as " nubbins" on soft corn. The 
best of this class of corn was reserved for the pigs, and the worst 
fed to the cattle. Ten bushels on the cob made 29i|- lbs. of pork, 
fed in the usual way, on the ground. The same amount of shelled, 
ground by horse-power, and well boiled, made 64fbs. of pork. Of 
course a portion of that fed on the ear was wasted ; but it is the 
common plan, and forms but a fair test to the comparative merits of 
cooked food. I have made no experiments with sound new corn, but 
may have a favorable opportunity before the season is past ; but 
would suppose that my experiments with old corn would form a good 
criterion to judge by. Thomas J. Edge. 



43 
$50,000,000 ANNUALLY WASTED. 

In connection with the foregoing see U. S. Agricultural Report 
of 1865, page 407, which says : 

AMOUNT OF COARSE STRAW AND FODDER WASTED. 

If we take the amount of grain and Indian corn raised in the 
United States, as by the census of 1850, we shall find, by allowing 
forty bushels of grain to the ton of straw or corn fodder, that there 
were about 30,000,000 of tons. Now, at least, one-third of this is 
wasted for every purpose except manure, and vast quantities are not 
even used for that. Suppose we estimate this at one-half the value 
put upon it by Mr. Mechi, or five dollars per ton, and we have the 
enormous sum of $50,000,000 wasted, for want of proper economy, 
in a single year. We believe this estimate much below the real loss. 
These facts are worthy of a thorough examination by the farmers 
of the whole country. Let them study their own interests. Many 
of them will see where they have thrown away enough in ten years 
to double their property. 



WHEY. 



This article of food, which is now so largely increasing, through 
the multiplication of cheese factories, has given much trouble to 
many farmers who do not understand the true method of using it. 
Whey is not a perfect food in itself, as it contains only a part of the 
constituents necessary to support animal life and health. It is com- 
posed nearly all of milk and sugar, retaining but a slight proportion 
of casein, or cheese and butter. But there are many other partial 
foods which are highly prized for feeding purposes. Whey has 
about the same composition as the turnip ; and even this, alone, is 
quite insufficient food for an animal. Mix whey with some 
highly nitrogenous food, such as oil meal, pea meal, oat meal, or 
bran, and it becomes a profitable food for cows, hogs or young 
animals. One pound of oil or pea meal, or 1-| ft>s. of oatmeal or 
bran to three gallons of whey, will make it a well balanced food for 
the production of milk, or the growing of the young animal. 

The constituents of whey have the advantage over the same 
elements in vegetable food, of being more soluble, and therefore, 
more easily digested and assimilated. Liebig, and some other em- 
inent physiologists, have supposed that starch is changed into sugar 
in the process of digestion, and, in this form, is absorbed into the 
system. If this theory be well founded, then whey is in the proper 
condition for absorption, and its elements would point it out as a 
highly fattening food ; its elements being, chemically, the same as 
fat or butter. There have been numerous cases where hogs have 
been made very fat on whey, with a small portion of nitrogenous 



44 

food, which proves that its office is to produce heat, oil or fat in the 
system. From our experiments in feeding whey to cows, calves or 
hogs, we regard it as worth from eight to ten dollars per cow for 
the season. 

But whey as obtained from the factory is generally sour ; and 
to obviate this difficulty many have resorted to heating or boiling 
it. It ought to be cooked with other food — oil, pea meal, bran, 
&c. This is easily done by steam. Put the whey and other food 
into a barrel, and introduce the steam pipe at the bottom of the 
barrel. 

Steaming is much better than boiling in a kettle, as there is 
no necessity of stirring, and no danger of burning. The cooking 
stops fermentation, and enables the feeder to keep the whey until 
it can be fed. Mr. Harris Lewis, a large and intelligent dairyman 
of Herkimer County, ET. Y., has adopted this system of cooking the 
whey, and recommends it highly. E. W. S. 

[Note. — The practice of taking whey home from cheese factories at some 
little distance, has some objections over the course pursued by some stock com- 
pany factories, who furnish the hogs and feed it out at the factory as fast as 
produced. All the latter method lacks to insure success is the proper prepara- 
tion of the whey, as above set forth, the convenience of good clover pasture near 
by, and the better care of the hogs.] 



■*» »t»* 



HOW TO PREVENT COOKED FOOD FERMENTING. 



Some feeders practicing the cooking system have been much 
troubled by fermentation, where the food has not been used immedi- 
ately. This has been caused b^ too little cooking. Cut hay, straw 
and bran or meal, thoroughly steamed, will not ferment for two 
days, even in warm spring weather. Partial cooking hastens fer- 
mentation and souring, but every housewife knows that thorough 
cooking will restore sour preserves and keep them sweet for a time. 

The steam box should be kept clean, for any taint of ferment 
about the cover will be communicated to the new food. So barrels 
used to steam hog feed in should be occasionally thoroughly cleaned. 

Steaming or boiling is frequently done so imperfectly as only 
to boil a small portion of the food, and this just warms some of it 
to the proper temperature to produce rapid fermentation. If all 
those who cook food for hogs will take pains to cook the whole 
contents of the barrel or kettle for a sufficient time, they will not 
be troubled with fermentation. 

Another cause of fermentation is in not having the mass suffi- 
ciently thick when done, and in emptying immediately into a cooler. 

Stewart. 



45 
COOKING CORN OR WHOLE GRAIN. 



Grinding grain renders it much more easily digested, as the 
small particles of meal have many hundred times more surface to 
come in contact with the gastric juice, and this meal takes much 
less time to cook than whole grain. But in many parts of the 
country, mills for grinding are distant, or charge so much that 
the expense is an item well worth saving. This may be done 
by thoroughly cooking the whole grain. Long cooking more 
perfectly bursts the grains of starch composing its kernel, than any 
grinding alone can do. It is, therefore, only a question of time in 
cooking. Corn should be boiled at least four hours, to render all 
its nutriment available to the animal. It is a great advantage to 
soak whole grain twelve hours or more in water before boiling. 
This will cause the boiling water to penetrate it and burst the grains 
of starch in less time than with hard, dry kernels. Stewart. 



««• ♦ «♦»• 



EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING CATTLE JN ENGLAND. 



COOKED AGAINST FERMENTED FOOD. 



It is necessary that the food of an animal should contain the five following' 
articles, otherwise it will lose flesh : starch or sugar to supply the carbon given 
off by respiration ; fat or oil to supply the fat ; gluten or fibrin to make up the 
waste in muscle or cartilage ; earthy phosphates to supply the waste of the bones ; 
and saline matter (principally sulphate and chlorides) to replace the waste by 
excretions. The absence of one or more of these will serve to prevent a n animal 
from being perfectly healthy and thrifty, and hence the benefit of a mixed kind 
of food. The following experiment in feeding cattle with cooked and with 
fermented food, wa slately tried upon one of the largest estates in England. Four 
heifers were selected, as equal in all respects as possible ; and six pigs were also 
selected, from the same family ; each lot was divided by the selection, alternately, 
of an animal. All were weighed, and at the end of each week during the experi- 
ment, each animal was weighed. In the first week of the experiment, the fer- 
mented food consumed was much less than the other, and the increase of the pigs 
in live weight was considerably more, and the heifers also seemed to have made 
rapid advances. The second week, however, changed the scene entirely. Those 
on cooked food were making steady progress, while those on fermented food had 
produced scarcely an increase from the preceding week. It was then observed 
that the bowels of the lot using fermented food had been confined, and had 
become free in the second week. The apparent success of the first week was the 
result of indigestion and accumulations of undigested matter in the intestines. 
The experiment continued for twelve weeks — those on cooked food thriving and 
increasing, the othersnot. On slaughtering them it was found that the intes- 
tines of the three fed on fermented food were full of worms — thus accounting for 
their not advancing. There was a difference in the return of the lots of pigs in 
favor of those fed on cooked food of £1 7s. 3d. From this we may deduce that 
the value of the different articles of food should be properly considered in two 
relations ; first, as nutritive, second, as digestible. Those which are the most 
nutritive in proportion to the quantity of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen 
which they contain ; they are digestible in proportion to the facility with which 
they are acted on by the gastric juices. — American Stock Journal, Parksburg, Pa. 



46 
TESTIMONIALS IN FAVOR OF COOKED FOOD. 



Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, remarks : " Unless food be thoroughly 
deprived of its vegetative powers, before it enters the stomach, the whole nour- 
ishment which it is capable of affording cannot be derived from it. The most 
effectual mode of destroying the living principle is by the application of heat, by 
steaming or boiling." 

Morton's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, says : " The process of cooking renders 
soluble that which would otherwise be imperfectly digested, it removes in some 
cases what would otherwise be unwholesome, and it renders savory what would 
otherwise be distasteful." 

Professor Horsfall, of England, in speaking of the preparation of Food 
for Stock, says : " I have cooked or steamed food for several years, and my 
experience of its benefits is such that if I were deprived of it 1 could not continue 
to feed with satisfaction." (See U. S. Report of Department of Agriculture fox 
1865, page 406.) 

Mr. Mechi, near London, has also practised Cutting and Steaming Straw, 
&c His experiments have been quite extensive, and the result most favorable 
to Cooked Food. (See same Report, page 407.) 

Hon. Qt. Geddes, of Syracuse, N. Y., says: " He thoroughly proved, years 
ago, that cooking, independent of grinding, at least doubled the value of food." 
Professor Mapes says : "He has proved that nineteen pounds of cooked 
corn are equal to fifty pounds raw, for hog feed. 

Mr. Mason, of New Jersey, " Found that pork fed with raw grain cost 12£ 
cents per pound, and that from cooked, 7-| cents." 

C. M. Clay, of Kentucky, showed : " That one bushel of dry corn made 5 
pounds 10 ounces of pork, boiled corn 14 pounds 7 ounces, and boiled meal 16 to 
18 pounds." 

The Society of Shakers, N. Y., says: "For fattening animals, swine particu- 
larly, we consider three of cooked equal to four of raw meal." 

S. H. Clay, of Kentucky : " Found by experiment that a bushel of raw corn 
makes 5£ pounds of pork, whilst a bushel of cooked meal makes 17£ pounds." 

James Buckingham gave, in the Prairie Farmer, an experiment with raw 
and cooked meal, and found that a hog fed on If bushels raw meal gained 19 
pounds, and another fed on one bushel cooked meal gained 22 pounds. 

Experiments made by Mr. Owen Merchant, of Warsaw, N. T., more than 
twenty-five years since, prove that a yoke of poor oxen, valued at about $40, 
were fatted on cooked potatoes and bran in five weeks and three days, and made 
extra beef, which was sold in the market for first quality. 

Mr. A. Avery, of Syracuse, N. Y., says after two years trial : " I think I 
have saved ten dollars per head on keeping (say $600 on the Stock Feed,) besides 
having the milk cows in much better condition than ever before." He says 
again, in April, 1869, " This, you see, gives me a clear profit of $537.25 on four 
and a half months' feed. 

Messrs. Dewey & Stewart, of Owosso, Mich., say : " We have fed sixty-four 
head of cattle, seven horses, and three hundred and forty sheep, fattened twenty- 
two head of the cattle, and seventy sheep. We think we have saved one-third 
the expense in wintering this stock." 

Mr. L. C. Eastman, of Duchess Co., N. Y., says : " There is no doubt of the 

advantage of steaming food for cows in milk, and for fattening any kind of stock." 

Judge Watts, of Carlisle, Pa., says : " Cooked food is a clear saving of food. 

and a benefit to all herbiverous and carnivorous animals — in fact, a complete 

success." 

The Ohio Oultivator, of February, 1862, referring to the preparation of food 
for animals, says : " Cooked or steamed food is another of the almost indispen- 
sables to every well managed farm. This is is a point which has been settled 
beyond controversy. Time alone is required to bring it into general use. Like 



47 

the thresher, mower and reaper, the introduction of apparatus for steaming food 
upon the farm, will be the work of years, but the time will come when it cannot 
be dispensed with by those who do not desire to range themselves with the pro- 
digal and improvident ones." 

The New England Farmer, of Boston, Jan. 18, 1862, in speaking of steaming 
and boiling food for stock, and of the recent different experiments made, says : 
" All tend to show the decided advantage of economy in cooking, or partially 
cooking the food for our animals" and further remarks, that "the experiments, 
thus far, have been made under several disadvantages, the principle of which 
has been the want of proper apparatus with which to do the work." 

New York, Aug. 16, 1870. 
D. R. Prindle, Esq. — Bear Sir : — The Steamer sent me last winter worka 
well, and I am fully convinced that there is economy in steaming food for all 
kinds of stock. Horses and sheep, as well as cattle and hogs, enjoy it and thrive 
upon it. With care and a good steamer, there need be literally no waste of fod- 
der, while the stock will be kept in excellent condition. 

Respectfully, Yours, L. A. Chase, 

American Agriculturist. 

^, »,» 



From the Practical Farmer, Sept., 1869. 

COOKED FOOD FOR STOCK. 



If you would have your stock outshine 

Your neighbor's o'er the way, 
By being large, and fat, and fine, 

Take heed to what I say. — . 

This casting out your feed to stock, 

Without first being cooked, 
A losing game it is — at least 
To me it long hath looked. 

But still the practice doth prevail, 

'Tis strange, but yet 'tis true — 
All, I suppose, for want of proof 

Upon the point in view. 

Now, " to the wise one word's enough," 

A maxim old, 'tis said ; 
Mark well, for on two-thirds the food 

Four stock may all be fed. 

To do the thing, I'll tell you how, 

'Tis easy quite, and plain ; 
Just take a peep in " Hardware Row," 

A Steamer there obtain. 

And Prindle's is by far the best \ 

Of any yet produced — 
For satisfaction it will give 

Wherever introduced. 

When you with one have been supplied, 

Just place it near your well, 
And by its use you soon will find 

That on your stock 'twill tell. 

Upon the subject do but read, 
And then I'd have you talk ; 
When, doubtless, you will all decide 
To cook your food for stock. 
Bates Co., Missouri.^ C. N. Teeter 



48 



ESSENTIALS TO DAIRYING. 



BY LEWIS F. ALLEN. 



No man need expect to succeed in the dairy business, unless well provided 
with good shelter for his cows, as well as the proper grasses and water, and 
accommodations for milking, feeding, or whatever else appertains to the con- 
venience and labor connected with it. It may be well to enumerate a few of 
these items, which are here offered for consideration. 

1st. Permanent blue grass and white clover pastures on dry, elevated soil, 
or their equivalent in other grasses or herbage, enabling the cows to give 
abundance of rich, good flavored milk. Common prairie and lowland grasses 
will not answer. ■ ;- . , 

2d. Abundance of pure water, supplied by living springs, running brooks, 
or permanent rills. Ponds, or stagnant water, is not healthy for dairy cows, and 
will not aid in making a high flavored cheese or butter. 

3d. Barn stables, or sheds, into which the cows may be driven in excessive 
heats or cold storms, for shelter, at all excessive temperatures, whether of heat 
or cold, of drought or moisture, affects the milk both in quality as well as quan- 
tity which influences, more or less, the quality as well as the quantity of the 
dairy products. 

4th. Quietude of the cows, continually, whether at pastures, or in their 
yards or stables, together with gentleness in their treatment, and a continuous 
lovable care for them, so that they repose entire confidence in those who go 
among, care for, and handle them. 

5th. Plenty of salt, once a week, to keep their bowels open, and their 
appetites good. .-. . 

6th. Steady milkers ; the same milkers to the same cows, continuously as 
may be possible, that the cows get accustomed to those who draw their milk ; 
and let the milking be done silently, without talking, as all unnecessary noises 
disturb the cow, and more or less affects the equable and steady flow of her milk. 
The milk cow is a very sensitive animal. 

7th. Perfect cleanliness in the pails and vessels which receive the milk, and 
clean hands to the milker. For these purposes a bucket of water, wash bowls, 
and a soft linen or cotton cloth to wipe off the udders, should always be in 

attendance. ■ . . . ,,,,., 

8th. In addition to all these requisites, when prolonged drought dries the 
pastures, green crops of grass, the small grains of Indian corn should be sown 
in spring to help out the pasture grasses, and keep up the flow of milk. For 
the want of these, oftentimes half the dairy products of the season is lost, 
Their food should be daily cut, and fed to the cows in clean mangers. 

The enthusiastic dairyman, just beginning the business, may say, " If I have 
to encounter all these difficulties, I may as well throw up the business at once, for I 
have neither the capital to expend in so multifarious a preparation, nor have I 
the convenience on my farm to supply all requirements, even if I had the 
moneyed means to provide them." The answer to this is : " No man should 
attempt dairying unless he goes into it as a permanent business ; and every kind 
of permanent occupation requires a certain amount of preparation to prosecute it 
to its most successful results. He may have his cheese house, his kettles, cald- 
rons and presses in ever so good order, and wnich can be suited in one place 
about as well as another ; but the material of what his cheese or butter is to be 
made, must be of good quality and perfectly arranged, or his work will prove a 
failure.— Prairie Farmer. 



49 
A TABLE TO CALCULATE PERIODS OF GESTATION 

OF FARM ANIMALS, &o. 



Showing the time at which the average gestation of domestic 
animals expires, dating from the first day of each month in the 
year. 



TIME. Cow 283 days. 



January 1st Oct. 10 

February 1st.. .Nov. 10 

March 1st Dec. 7 

April 1st Jan. 7 

May 1st Feb. 6 

June 1st .Mar. 10 

July 1st April 9 

August 1st May 10 

September 1st. .June 10 

October 1st July 10 

November . . . .Aug. 10 
December Sept. 10 



rpTTU'TJ' SHEEP AND GOAT, 



January 1st. . . .May 31 

February 1st July 1 

March 1st July 29 

April 1st Aug. 29 

May 1st Sept. 28 

June 1st Oct. 29 

July 1st Nov. 28 

August 1st Dec. 29 

September 1st. .Jan. 29 

October 1st Feb. 28 

November 1st.. Mar. 31 
December 1st., April 30 



TIME. Sow, 113 days. 



January 1st. . .April 23 
February 1st. . .May 24 

March 1st June 21 

April 1st July 22 

May 1st Aug. 21 

June 1st Sept. 21 

July 1st Oct. 21 

August 1st. . . .Nov. 21 
September 1st . . Dec, 22 

October 1st Jan. 22 

November 1st. .Feb. 21 
December 1st. .Mar. 23 



The period of gestation of the mare is very irregular, being 

from 11 to 13 months; that of the she ass (jenny,) about 12-J- 

months ; of the bitch, 63 days; of the cat, 50 days ; of the rabbit, 
28 days. 



A HUNGARIAN DAIRY. 



Yesterday we went out east of Pesth, to look over the farm of 
a gentleman, who, it is said, has the finest lot of cows in Hungary. 
"We found about sixty head of really splendid cattle, of mixed Hol- 
land and Swiss breeds, very large and smooth skinned, admirably 
kept, in stables so clean and airy that we had fully anticipated and 
were prepared to relish the excellent cold milk which was pre- 
sented to us for refreshment. 

These cows are not pastured — that is, they do not depend on 
pasturage, although they are allowed sufficient run for exereise and 
health. Their food consisted of cut straw, Hungarian grass, and 
" bran mash." The stables were furnished with straw cutting and 
steaming apparatus on quite an extensive scale, everything indi- 
cating a high degree of order and economy. 

The native Hungarian cattle are of a light dun color, in shape 
and appearance much like our Texan cattle, and with like immense 
horns. As we came down the Danube we passed very many large 
droves of them, drinking or bathing at the shores. They were 
very interesting in appearance, particularly as they are all of a 
color, in this more resembling wild than domestic animals. 

IJpon the farm referred to, is raised chiefly rye and Indian 
corn, with Hungarian grass and vegetables for the stock. — C. W. 
Marsh, in Chicago JPost. 



50 

ARRANGEMENT FOR DUMPING STEAM VESSELS, &C. 



Trunions placed upon the central portion of a steam vessel, 
with a handle near the bottom and vessel setting up a little from the 
floor, will be found, when properly managed, more convenient than 
the usual mode of shoveling or dipping out. Handles or ears also, 
placed near the central portion of the vessel in lieu of the trunions, 
with a block and tackle or other power, and short ropes with hooks 
for hooking into the handles or ears, may be used when it can 
readily be hoisted for emptying into the low cooler or mash vat. 
Some such arrangement would be very convenient for any good 
sized hog pen, as when one vessel is cooked and emptied another 
may be steamed, and so on successively without other steam ves- 
sels (the usual mode), here comes in the economy of cooking by 
steam, — several vessels, successively, by the same fire, instead of 
one kettle full, (the primitive style of our fathers.) In the absence 
of the above, two or more vessels may be used for cooking success- 
ively. Or a vessel may be placed on a truck and steamed ; wlien 
it can be drawn along a track direct to the feeding trough, and 
save much time in handling, &c. P. 



LAYING STEAM PIPES. 



Many enquiries have been made through the public journals 
within the last few years on this subject, but as yet nothing prac- 
tical, explaining the many failures, has come to the eye of the 
writer. Inexperience and want of proper care and judgment in 
this branch of farm economy has caused many failures, and the 
frequent discouragement of the would be progressive farmer. To 
explain this subject, so that a child need not err in tracing the 
cause of failure, &c, we will first illustrate the folly of laying 
steam pipes in the ground, or otherwise, without perfect protection 
from cold or water, by a simple comparison, thus. Every house- 
wife knows that to cool any substance or liquid quick it is best 
done by settiug the tin or iron vessel into cold water, or air, as 
may be. Then a child should see at a glance that cooking or con- 
veying steam through a metal pipe in a ditch of cold earth or 
water, as may be, would never be successful. The writer has 
known many who have been so extremely cautious as to place 
their pipes in a ditch and fill carefully with sawdust, &c, not 
thinking that the ditch would fill the first ram or thaw, as might be, 
with water. Comment is unnecessary to show the folly of such 
attempts, as the heat^expends itself in its passage through, the ditch 
or water, as may be, and thus condenses the steam, and failure is 
the result. The effect of cold air on metal pipes is often the cause 
of failure. Hence the importance of ample protection to steam 
pipes, boilers, and steam vessels. Provision must also be made for 
the escape of condensed steam. See illustration, page 51. 

Prindle. 



51 
FREQUENT CAUSES OF FAILURES IN THE USE OF STEAM. 



For the benefit of the inexperienced, we note some of the prin- 
cipal causes of failures in this department of farm labor : — The 
effort to convey steam a great distance without proper protection 
of the pipes from water and cold, and provision for the escape of con- 
densed water from steam pipes, to prevent clogging or freezing 
in winter, &c; are often causes of failure. The use of green or wet 
wood, or the want of a good, clear combustion, loss of steam, or 
improper steam vessels, defects in boilers, or want of proper 
check flues, of nearly one-third circumference of furnace (as now 
made in Prindle's) have sometimes brought ill success to the 
operator. Any defects in boilers, or want of success in operating 
them satisfactorily, should be reported to the manufacturer or 
inventor, (not agents.) This rule will apply to any new farm 
machinery where the working is not properly understood. P. 



I 

B 



HOW TO PREVENT 

Condensed Steam Clogging or Freezing 



IN STEAM PIPES. 

h 

a 



\W 



B represents the boiler ; line (a) steam pipe from boiler to steam tank (c) 
on a descending grade ; dottedline (b) the same on an ascending grade. A vessel 
filled with water, with a small drip pipe extending into it, is placed at the lowest 
point or points of steam pipes, as may be. It will thus be seen that while the 
condensed water seeks its level in the vessel below, that the steam passes on into 
the steam tank unobstructed. In the ascending grade (6) the vessel and drip 
pipe is placed at the opposite end or lowest point. 



THE KOAD TO SUCCESS IN THE USE OF STEAM. 



Place the boiler where it can be protected from cold, where 
water is convenient, also as near to steam vessels as possible. 

Secure a good draft by sufficient size and height of smoke pipe, 
or its connection with a chimney, which is preferable. Use good 
fuel, and do your work quick. Protect everything from cold and 
wet. Use wood steam vessels, and of as thick material as con- 
venient, to prevent radiation and loss of heat. For small loood, 
cobs, chips, &c, use a suitable grate instead of wood bars, which 
secures a better combustion and prevents choking with ashes, 
embers, &o. Have all steam vessels perfectly tight, and always 
avoid the loss of steam. When steam is up it is economy to cook 
several vessels successively, instead of one large one. Study the 
experience and teachings of others, and, if not at first successful, 
learn the cause of failure and the remedy will appear. P. 



52 

PROTECTION OF PIPES THEONLTEOAD TO SUCCESS. 

When it becomes necessary to cook at some little distance by- 
steam, it is usually done by laying a f-inch bore iron gas pipe, pro- 
tected in a proper manner, or a wooden pipe or pump log of one inch 
bore is sometimes used, for a moderate distance, without protection. 
Iron or metal pipes should be lain in a small substantial box, about 
four inches square, and laid upon blocks about one inch from the 
bottom, and the box well filled in and around the pipe tightly with 
wool, hair, felt, &c, as may be obtainable. Other non-conducting 
substances are sometimes used, such as sawdust, pulverized char- 
coal, &c. The hair from tanners, properly prepared by whipping 
a little, is probably the cheapest, and as good as any. We see no 
reason why rags will not answer as well, although we have never 
tried them. Another indispensable feature is ample protection 
from water by proper underdraining, placing the box and steam 
pipes above. Sufficient capacity should be given the ditch, so that 
no flood will affect the pipes. Where steam is to be conveyed in 
pipes a boiler one size larger is generally required. Peindle. 



WOOD STEAM VESSELS BETTER THAN IRON ! 

OR PRACTICE versus THEORY. 



Practice teaches us that wood is a very good non-conductor of 
heat or cold. Iron is found to be the reverse. Hence wood retains 
its heat much better than iron, and costs less. Many writers, in 
recommending iron for steam vessels, do not consider this fact, 
and thus mislead their readers. Iron tanks or steam vessels may 
be used by covering with plank, or encased up with boards, and 
packed between with some non-conducting substance, to prevent 
the escape of heat. Feed, when properly cooked in vessels packed 
in this way, will keep warm for some time, thus obviating the 
necessity of cooking every day. Wood vessels made of 2-inch 
plank, of good durable material, is found to answer all purposes, 
and costs much less. Iron is also found to corrode, unless gal- 
vanized, and we think cannot come into general use. With two 
good tanks it will not be necessary to cook oftener than every 
other day. 

The little " Norwegian Dinner Pot" which recently figured 
so largely in some of our agricultural papers as valuable for cook- 
ing food for stock, is a vessel of metal or wood encased in wood, 
and packed with wool or felt between, making as nearly as pos- 
sible a perfect refrigerator, and will keep ice as well as hot water ; 
hut does not generate heat. Hence the error so recently dissemi- 
nated. 

Some valuable hints from this circumstance may well be con- 
sidered, as to keeping feed hot or cold for some length of time, or in 
preventing frost from various vessels or pipes in winter. 

Peindle. 



53 
ENGINES, WROUGHT-IRON BOILERS, &P, 

Illustrations of various patterns of Steam Engines, Tubular 
Boilers, &c, are so common place as not to require a repetition at 
our hands. Good substantial tubular boilers with engines, although 
rather expensive and dangerous for common use, are found to be 
well adapted to the farmer's wants, where a sufficient amount of 
constant work will warrant the outlay. Great cantion and some 
considerable experience is necessary, however, to insure success, as 
with the .best of high pressure boilers, many accidents are of daily 
occurrence. See Country Gentleman, Sept. 29, 1870, " Steam on 
the Farm. ;" also Progressive Batavian, Oct. 7, 1870, " Death of C. 
S. Craft," whose head was blown off, while asleep 8 or 10 rods 
distant, engineer escaping unhurt ; also Western Rural, Oct. 20, 
1870, "Several men killed and wounded near Richmond, Ind." 
Although the engine is as indispensable as " Animal Power" we 
repeat too much caution cannot be exercised in their use on the farm 

Peindle. 



HINTS 



TO THOSE WHO INTEND TO PURCHASE BOILERS, OR OTHER. 
COOKING APPARATUS. 



1st. Beware of the ordinary thin sheet iron cylinder boilers, 
with small water space, as the deposition of lime from hard water, 
corrosions, scales and sediments, will soon fill up or destroy the 
boiler, or, at least, render it unsafe in the hands of the inexperi- 
enced. Such is the opinion of practical boiler makers. 

2d. Sheet iron pans having been recommended by some, it 
may be well to consider a few things before adopting them. Are 
these pans capable of standing ten pounds of pressure to the square 
inch ? Can wooden covers be packed steam-tight under such pres- 
sure, and remain so any length of time ? Can such covers be pre- 
vented from warping ? Do you know how to prevent substances 
which are cooked over a perforated bottom in a pan from falling 
through, and burning in the pan below ? The writer, in twenty 
years experience, has not been able to answer these questions in 
the affirmative. 

3d. Avoid a cast iron boiler that is so made that when any 
part fails it cannot be replaced, without a loss of the entire furnace 
and boiler. 

4th. As all the ingenuity of the age is at work to supply the 
increasing demands for some apparatus well adapted to domestic 
use — one that is simple, safe and practical — one that obviates all the- 
objections hinted at — it will be well for purchasers to examine care- 
fully each claimant before investing money for such a purpose. 

5th. With a steam pressure of from five to twenty pounds per 
inch, food cooking may be done in detached wooden vessels, even 
at some distance from the boiler ; hogs scalded in a wooden vat 
at a convenient point ; clothes boiled in tubs or barrels ; bath tubs 



54 

warmed by extending pipes, &c. By this agency food may be cooked 
in large quantities, which is impossible with the ordinary cauldron, 
and the trouble attending this, in the old way, avoided, as well as 
the scorching of the substances consequent on cauldron cooking. 
6th. Use no boiler in domestic use which has not been proven 

tO be PERFECTLY SAFE AND DURABLE. 

These are some of the considerations which should guide the 
farmer in making choice of the means of cooking food for his farm 
stock — a mode of preparation now conceded to be a great annual 
pecuniary saving. Prindle. 



ADVANTAGES OF STEAM IN FARM ECONOMY. 

The application of steam to the various purposes of farm econ- 
omy may appropriately claim a place alongside of the improve- 
ments which have recently been made in the means of trans- 
mitting intelligence through the agency of the telegraph. 

Steam is capable of performing almost anything, where force 
is required, in the cycle of human industry ; yet fears of explosion 
and scalding have deterred many from availing themselves of this 
great labor-saving agency, and hence its limited use in farm 
economy. The lack of a perfectly safe and easily managed low 
pressure apparatus, competent to meet all the demands of domestic 
use, has greatly retarded the introduction of steam in farm manage- 
ment. 

The prominent advantages of using steam in cooking, heating 
and boiling, are found in the celerity with which these operations are 
performed, and the limited amount of water and fuel required, render- 
ing the labor of the operator an easy task, as well as the adaptability 
of any kind of vessel, wood or otherwise, to the purposes to be 
accomplished. By using a steam apparatus, as indicated, in cooking 
food for stock, there is no refilling of kettles to get the desired 
quantity, as in the ordinary mode ; no occasion for constant watch- 
ing and stirring to prevent burning. By this method there is no 
cleaning of kettles for any separate job. By this agency large 
quantities of food may be boiled or steamed at the same time by 
the addition of vessels as circumstances may render necessary, and 
when desirable steam can be conveyed through pipes or logs some 
distance, care being taken to prevent condensation, thus diminish- 
ing the chances of danger from fire if eny there be. Steam is thus 
made available for the various purposes of domestic economy, as 
well as for the manufacture of many compounds rendered danger- 
ous from contact with fire under ordinary circumstances. By this 
agency clothes may be steamed in the barrel, the water in the bath 
tub warmed in the adjoining room ; hogs scalded after having been 
fattened on the food prepared by it ; tallow rendered in wooden ves- 
sels without ganger of burning, &c. Steam propels boats, rail cars, 
mills, factories, — in fact everything in the commercial line; and 
there is certainly no good reason why the labor of the farmer should 
not be expedited by the same means. This is readily done by 
the low pressure, simple and safe apparatus, which is here com- 
mended to public approval. Prindle. 



55 




56 

As a matter of comparison with the Prindle Steamer, and other modern im- 
provements, as to cost, simplicity, portability, adaptability to all the wants of the 
farmer, we have no hesitation in presenting our readers the above cut, of Euro- 
pean origin. It will be noticed that the apparatus is set in brick work, there- 
fore not portable. The expensive fixtures, as shown in the cut, with cooking 
vessels of iron, trunions, costly covers, &c, are dispensed with in the more 
modern improvements of the present day. 

In practice, wooden steam vessels are found to be superior to iron, and cost much 
less (see article on steam vessels). The reader will notice in the above cut an 
attempt to produce an apparatus similar to the Prindle Boiler ; but practice and 
modern improvements has demonstrated the impracticability of bolts and nuts 
for a convertible caldron and steamer, as nuts, bolts, &c, corrode, and twist off, 
and are also in the way of the packing, thus preventing the ready removal of 
the dome or steam chamber. The amount of expense and machinery attach- 
ed to this apparatus makes it impracticable for general use, although some of 
its features are noteworthy. 




No. 2-HORIZONTAL CYLINDER BOILER, with Water Tank, &c. 



This cut represents a wrought-iron Steamer, intended more for heating 
water and dairy purposes It is constructed on the principle ot the upright, or 
one cylinder within the other, and has, like them, a great radiating surface and, 
consequently, loss of heat. No way appears to be provided to clean them, 
except to blow them off like tubular steam boilers. This boiler, we believe, has 
never come into use, and is rather costly to make, like all wrought-iron boilers 
that are of sufficient strength for safety or durability. 

N. B. — The entire surface of this boiler being exposed to the air or cold, it 
will be seen to radiate or lose a large per cent, of its heat. 



57 




No. 3 -SORGHUM, AND OTHER PANS, AS FODDER COOKERS 

This cut represents a common sheet iron apparatus, first introduced for a 
sorghum evaporator ; but since cooking for stock has received such an impetus, 
it is now claimed, with a slight modification, to be adapted to cooking on the 
farm. It will, however, be noticed that no pan can be used for all kinds of cooking, 
as hominy, or other substances, except, perhaps, corn in the ear, as they will either 
fall through the false bottom, or the juices will run through and will burn on 
to the pan below. No ordinary sheet iron pan can stand steam under much 
pressure, hence are not adapted to all kinds of cooking on the farm. 

N. B. — Dry Corn, before it can be steamed, must be soaked thoroughly, or 
boiled in water. 




No. 4.-UPRIGHT CYLINDER BOILER.~(For description see next page.) 



58 

The preceding apparatus is made of wrought iron, in two cylinders — one within 
he other, having but a small space for water. This upright form is not new 
nor does it differ materially from the horizontal cylinders which are sometimes 
used in brick work, or as shown in cut No. 2, which combines the same with its water 
reservoir. It is an acknowledged fact that all sheet iron boilers, with very small 
water space, will in time fill up with sediment, lime from hard water, &c. ; and 
when used for only a portion of the time will corrode within, and soon become 
unsafe. 

All boilers made of wrought-iron should be made of good thick materia 
and by a known and reputable boiler maker, or they will be unsafe for domestic 




No. 5.-THE ANDERSON STEAMER. 

The above apparatus is made similar to the preceding, with very small 
water space between, and requires nearly a constant supply of water. Nothing 
new appears in this steamer, as elevated water feeders, pipes, cocks, &c, are old, 
and can be attached in various ways to any boiler, but are generally in the way, 
and not as economical for practical use as some other modes of feeding the boiler 

This boiler being made of thin iron, and with a small icater space, is deemed 
short lived, and will fill up with lime and sediment, as no way is provided to 
clean them out, except to blow them off similar to the common steam boiler. 

Like other thin sheet iron boilers, when corrosion within takes place from 
not being in constant use, they are soon rendered unsafe and short lived. Al 
the hoops that are now being added to this boiler will not prevent danger, when 
eorrosion takes place within. Such are the opinions of eminent boiler makers. 



COIL TUBING AS A STEAM GENERATOR. 



This apparatus has been tried by coiling or forming iron tubing into various 
shapes or forms, and placing the same in a suitable furnace for heating. The 
lower end of the coil receives the cold water, while the upper conveys off th« 
steam. These coils are expensive to make, and have long been known by scien- 
tific men to fill up with depositions of lime, scales, &c., from hard water, thus 
.rendering them in time worthless for steam generators. As conveyors of steam, 
where no lime is deposited, this objection is removed. See the testimony o 
scientific men on this subject. 



59 




No. 6.-A COMBINED CALDRON AND STEAMER. 

The above cut represents an Illinois coal furnace, with a common caldron 
and without the dome, as would appear in the cut, is used with a tin or sheet-iron 
cover ; and, to make it sell well, it is said not to blow up. All of which is very 
true, as no kettle, when not under pressure, is liable to burst. Failing in this 
deception, the parties have now added a dome for steam, as shown in the cut, 
similar to the Prindle Boiler, of which it is an infringement ; and steps are now 
being taken to prosecute all persons selling or using it. No Combined and 
Convertible Caldron and Steamer, except the Prindle, is now in use, 
unless an infringement on the Prindle patent. The furnace to the above cut 
has a small base, and is liable to tip over ; and it will be seen to radiate a large 
per cent of the heat, for want of proper linings, &c. 




No. 7.-SAFETY VALVE AND APPENDAGE, a New York City device. 

This little device shows plainly a designed infringement of the Non. 
Explosive Safety Valve of Prindle's, the only difference being the substituting 
of the spring within the boiler where it cannot be reached to adjust or keep in 
order, without taking off the dome to the boiler. It is therefore considered im- 
practicable, and shows conclusively the importance of Mr. Prindle's invention 
See cut of the Prindle valve. 



61 




This Cut Represents the Prindle Steamer, as Adapted to Farmers' Wants. 
SEE CUTS ELSEWHERE. 



ft 

1 

S3 




Section of Prindle's new 
Patent vacuum and pressure 
valve, showing ail its parts. 
A is a spiral spring which 
controls the vacuum valve D. 
B a nut or guide for sustain- 
ing in position and control- 
ing the spring and lower 
valve. C the flange or steam 
joint which rests on the 
boiler, and held by weights. 



I 

I 

CO 

IS] 

I 



2 



^ 
g 

e 




This cut shows the perfect 
valve as it appears when in 
use on the boiler resting up- 
on the flange with clapper D 
in the boiler. By the use of 
this simple device all dan- 
ger from explosion is quite 
impossible. No boOer would 
be practicable for domestic 
use without something of the 
kind. 



N. B. — It will be noticed that when the boiler is out of water, a vacuum is 
formed instead of pressure. Hence, the suction acts upon the spring, and opens 
the lower valve, as shown above, thus making a pressure and vacuum valve in 
one device. 



62 




FARMER'S BOILER & FURNACE. 



For soap, lard, tallow, sugar, oil, cooking feed, &c, &g. 
Unlike ant othee it has an air chamber around the fire box, to 
prevent loss of heat. It cannot tip over, having a broad base. Is 
light to handle and cheap. This open boiler can be had separate 
from the steamer fixtures, and of various sizes. No other portable 
caldron and furna,ce has the great advantage of being readily con- 
verted into a steamer without infringing the JPrindle patent. 



MAKING STEAM BOXES. 



These may be in the form of a round tub, a little tapering, or 
square, with frame to clamp it, and should be of inch and a half or 
two inch staves and two-inch heads, of good, clear, durable lumber. 
A trap two feet square is made in the top head when it can 
stand erect, (the best mode.) This should be sawed in beveling, at 
an angle of 45 degrees, which will be easier to pack steam tight. — 
A small door is also sawed in same manner near the bottom, and to 
be secured with suitable clamps, packing, &c, steam tight. ^ These 
tanks are usually made with a false bottom two inches high, on 
stringers of inch strips, and made of narrow slats or boards 4 to 6 
inches wide, in two parts, or movable for cleaning. These string- 
ers under the false bottom have notches on lower edge to let the 
steam or condensed water have full and unobstructed passage. 

The above description of tanks relate to those usually made 
for steaming cut feed. Large, thick oil barrels, &c., are frequently 
used for cooking-vessels for hogs. Experience will teach any ope 
to vary the construction of the tanks or other appendages as cir- 
cumstances require. (See article on Steam Boxes by Stewart, &c.) 



63 



SPARK CATCHER. 




any smoke-pipe 



These devices are made in various ways, 
but are seldom required. Fear, or fancy, 
however, may require a passing notice of 
them. No more danger exists from a 
smoke pipe from a very low pressure steam 
generator ^than from any ordinary stove- 
pipe*. 

The cut shows an additional section, or 
drum, one foot in length, — two inches dis- 
tant from smoke-pipe to which it is at- 
tached, with cap over the whole, and is 
said to serve as a spark extinguisher, as 
well as a cap, which is indispensable to 
Another device is sometimes used, made of wire 



cloth of about -J inch meshes, one foot wide and directly under the 
cap, above the pipe. 

In either case the supports are narrow strips of iron, riveted on 
to the various parts. These can be made by any common tinman. 

Wire cloth is liable to fill with soot, and hence requires clean- 
ing by whipping, or it will obstruct the draft. This is the greatest 
objection to its use. With the check flue on the Prindle boiler, no 
danger is apprehended from this source. A sufficient length of 
pipe or chimney is the best safeguard. 

"N. B. — Great caution is required in the use of any device that 
■will obstruct the draft. 



The brevity, and haste with which this little work has 
been prepared, in the intervals of farm labor, is a matter of no 
little regret ; and we trust the reader will pardon all errors or 
omissions in treating thus hastily this important subject, with 
the assurance that this work will be revised at an early day, and 
made to keep pace with the modern science of stock feeding. 

Peindle. 



64 

FARMERS, STOCK BREEDERS AND OTHERS ! 

SAVE TOUM FEED ! 

ECONOMY IS WEALTH! 

cooking- for stock i 



THE 

PEINDLE AGRICULTURAL STEAM BOILER & CALDRON 

Is especially adapted to all the wants of the Farmer, Stock Feeder, 
Planter and others. It is 

SAFE, CHEAP AID PORTABLE. 

0PEN8 AND SHUTS, is easily cleaned, and can be managed by any person 
of ordinary capacity. No other Combined Apparatus is in market, unless an in- 
fringement of this patent. 

N. B. — Illustrated Circulars giving full details, free. 

D. R. PRINDLE, Patentee and Prop'r, 

East Bethany, N. Y. 
BARROWS, SAVERY & Co., Manufacturers, 

Philadelphia. 
COLLINS & BURGLE, Manufacturers, 
Chicago, 111. 

CAUTION. 



Since the introduction of a safe apparatus for generating steam for domestic 
purposes by the subscriber, many attempts have been made, and are now making 
to palm off upon the public other kinds of boilers. Some have merit foi steam 
alone, some are short-lived and unsafe, while all that have come under my notice 
are not convertible, that is, cannot be opened and shut at will, or cleaned, and 
consequently will corrode and form scales of lime, iron, &c, upon the inside, thus 
rendering them subject to premature decay, and that more especially when not 
in constant use upon the farm. This is an established fact, laid down by scien- 
tific men, hence the importance of my claims. 

N. B.— ALL INFRINGEMENTS will be promptly prosecuted. 

IgpTwelve Page Illustrated Circulars free. 

id. wt. ipkiistddilie:;, 

Patentee and Proprietor of the Original Prindle Steamer, 

EAST BETHANY, N. T. 

»* M* FKfflBLE, 
AND PATENTEE 

OF THE OI^LY STRICTLY 

NON-EXPLOSIVE CONVERTIBLE STEAM BOILER AND CALDRON. 
(rglTSee Illustrated 12 Page Circular, sent free by all authorized agents. 
FRIZE ESSAY BOOK sold wholesale and retail by the subscriber. 
N. B. — A liberal discount to the trade. 

D. R. PRINDLE, East Bethany, N. Y., or 
BARROWS, SAVERY & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



PRICE LIST 



OF 



PRIME'S AGRICULTURAL STEAMER & CALDRON. 




PRINDLE'S PATENT 

AGRICULTURAL STEAM BOILER and FURNACE. 



WEIGHT. 
WOOD. COAL, 



PRICE. 
WOOD. COAL. 



No. 1—1 barrel, 3301b, 3801b, $45.00 $50.00 
No. 2— 2 " 4801b, 5751b, 65.C0 70.00 
No. 3— 3 " 6101b, 6701b, 85.00 90.00 
No. 4—4 " 8101b, 9271b, 105.00 115.00 
(N.B.— Nop. 2 and 3are common sizes for Farmers.) 



Steam Boiler without Furnace 

FOR BRICK WORK. 

No. 1—1 barrel, 2501b, $33.00 

No. 2—2 " 4001b, 50.00 

No. 3— 3 " : 4501b, 60.00 

No. 4— 4 " 5001b, 70.00 



PRINDLE'S PATENT 

AGRICULTURAL FURNACE 



AND CALDRON. 



No. —15 gall 
No. 1 —20 < 
No. 1^—30 ■ 
No. 2 —40 ' 
No. 3 —50 ' 
No. 4 —60 


WEIGHT. PRICE. 
WOOD. COAL. WOOD. COAL. <p| 

ons, 1751b, 2091b, $18.00 $20.00 1 
2601b, 3201b, 24.00 28.00 
3051b, 3801b, 28 00 32.00 
3651b, 4601b, 23.00 38.00 
4851b, 5451b, 38.00 43.00 
43.00 50 00 d 


No. 5 —80 






No. 6— 100 






No. 7—120 














CAPACITY OF THE PRINDLE ST3 




To enable any person to judge of the size best adapted to their wants, we give an aver- 
age approximation as adapted to cocking for stocK&c„ as a basis, believing that an opinion 
may be formed readily as to other kinds of businefes for which it is adapted. 

No, 1 will cook for a few Hogs ; heat a barrel of water, or steam 20 bushels cut feed, &c 

No. 2 will cook easily for 50 hogs or less ; boil four barrels water at a time, or steam 
50 to 70 bushels cut feed twice a day, or cook for 250 men, doing all the boiling, such as 
VEGETABLES, MEAT, COFFEE, &c, &c. 

No. 3 will cook fo; 50 to 80 hogs, or 75 to 100 bushels cut feed twice a day, &c. 

No. 4 will cook for 80 to 100 hogs. This size is well adapted to small tanneries. 

N. B— Nos. 2 and 3 are as small as are generally sold to farmers. 

y^DOITBLE CAPACITY may be obtained, (where portability is no object,) by 
setting two in Brick Work, with arch and flues for wood or coal. (See Price List without 
Furnace ; also Illustrated Directions for Using, &c. Always sent free. 

N. B —It is Economy to order a size large enough for all purposes. 



^it mfl w ^ 




^ S SOR S TO ^AVERY Cj r 

CORNER OF SOUTH FRONT and REED Sts. 

FHILABELFHiA. 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

PBINDLWS PATENT 

Jlgricnltaial $itmm Cal^ran 

FOR WOOID A.3ST3D COAL. 

DIN INa BOOM WATEM COOLER 

And Refrigerator Combined. 

BARROWS 7 PATENT 



Enamelled. Bath Tubs, Wash Stand Tods, Ms, &c. 



AND A FULL ASSORTMENT OF 



Cast Iron Holioiv Ware, 

Enamelled and Tinned Wave, 
Wroufjht and Cast Handle Sad Irons, 

Wagon Boxes, 

Field & Garden Rollers, &c 9 &c. 

JAMES C. HAND & Co, 

FACTORS, 
No. 6'U and 616 Market M, Philadelphia. 



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